FireLink

What's More Important: Credentials or Experience?

Mon, 18 Jul 2011 09:52:00 -0700

What best prepares a firefighter for the job? Classroom lectures? Experience through on-the-job training? Both? Neither? Each option has its proponents and its opponents. There have been discussions (and at times, heated debates) about experience versus credentials at firehouse kitchen tables all over the country for years.

What we are really talking about is training. What training method works best? What training method works best for you? Before you answer, think about the last time you learned something. For decades, people have been studying the ways, the means, and the methods that we humans learn “stuff”. After all this research, they came up with a blinding flash of the obvious: It depends.

In this “Kitchen Table Debrief” I will talk about the various methods we use to learn new things, and how we can best ensure our organizations implement the principles and methods to help everyone continue to learn and grow.

Credentials Versus Experience

This subject was the topic of a FIRELINK forum I participated in a couple of years ago, however, it is still just as relevant today.

According to studies done on how humans best learn , there are four principles that should be implemented for the best learning experience: Thinking, Watching, Doing, and Feeling. Think of spokes on a wheel. The more spokes that are used, the smoother the ride becomes. Think of these principles as those spokes on a wheel. The more of these principles that are used, the smoother the training becomes.

Not every learning experience requires each of these training principles, but the fastest and most thorough learning comes from applying all of these principles.

This is not rocket science. Let’s take a couple of basic firefighter skills; the placement of ground ladders and tying a figure of eight on a bight knot.

Try to remember back when you first learned these skills. Someone probably told you the benefit of placing ground ladders. They did this because someone in the crowd probably asked, “Why do we need to know this?” Then, the instructor explained about placing, extending, and footing the ladder. He or she explained the correct way to determine if the angle of pitch is correct or not, and where to place the top of the ladder for easiest access to use as egress or rescue. Then, they showed you how to place the ladder. Next you tried it, and received feedback on how you did it.

It was probably the same with the knots. Maybe the technique was shown to you first, and then you tried it yourself. Maybe you got it wrong, and you were corrected, or maybe you got it right from the get-go and received kudos. At some point, you were probably told why you need that particular knot, and what would be the best application of it.

In both these examples, the four training principles were used. The thinking part; having the theory of ground ladder placement explained and the appropriate use of the knot, the watching part; having the proper technique performed for you to observe, the doing part; you actually perform the skill under the observation of a mentor, and finally the feeling part; receiving feedback to either encourage or correct your technique.

Guess what: you don’t ALWAYS go through all four principles. But to truly learn a new skill; for the best learning experience, you should go through more than one of these principles. The order of the steps doesn’t matter, usually.

Can you learn ladder placement just by observing? Yes, but you will undoubtedly feel better about your mastery of the skill if you have done it yourself, and received feedback on how you did. Understanding the WHY of a new skill is also critical to retaining the steps. If you learn why something is done a particular way, you are more inclined to recall the proper steps.

Does receiving a certificate for your new skill make you better at throwing up a ladder at the next structure fire? Obviously, the answer is “no.”

There is a difference between being trained and being certified, though. Being certified usually includes meeting some performance criteria to show proficiency. Depending on how much someone applies himself/herself, this could be a BIG difference.

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At my Firehouse, 30 years ago (a little before my time), if we were toned out for a medical call, two members would grab the rescue (we call it the rescue, some communities call it the ambulance, rig, bus, etc) and respond to the call even if neither one was an EMT. The mentality was the same as in the pre-EMT days - at least you would get the victim to the hospital.

Clearly, the “Train As You Go” method is no longer acceptable anywhere in the country, for medical calls. So how is it that some communities think nothing of allowing untrained, firefighters to gear up and march into a burning structure? It boggles the mind…

Certification programs are great. Every member should be encouraged to complete NFPA 1001 Firefighter Level I and Level II. Those are two very good credentials to obtain. However, getting both of those certifications does not, in and of itself, guarantee a successful evolution on the fireground. Even if live burns are part of the certification, there is a big difference between burning bales of hay in a concrete and steel building, and Joe Dokes' condo on fire (room and contents) down the street.

In my own career I have come across some fantastic firefighters who never received their Firefighter Level I or Level II certification, but could easily teach advanced courses on fire behavior and fire control. Are these individuals less qualified than someone with the certificates? Of course not.

Don't get me wrong; I am all for certified training and seminars. In my opinion, we owe it to ourselves to keep abreast of the latest trends, and discoveries in this profession. Education is one of our strongest and most flexible tools. But even in communities where the access to these types of training and seminars is limited because of distance, dollars, or opportunities, EXCELLENT training programs can be put together by a couple of highly motivated fire officers or firefighters and delivered right in your own firehouse. You don't need a certificate to prove you know something! Let your actions speak!!

Every department should have at least a three-tiered training program. We call ours the “Training Roadmap”. We have training for our under-aged, junior firefighter program. We also have training for members split up into: Bootcamp (new firefighter orientation), Basics (basic firefighter competencies), and Beyond the Basics (tips, strategies and theories).

There are lots of monthly magazines and websites available for you to use when developing your training programs. Some of these cost you nothing but the time to research them. There is no - zero - zip - zilch reason why Fire Departments today allow members to stay on the active list without being trained.

There is tremendous value for your department in sending people to training. The National Fire Academy in Emmitsburg, Maryland, offers the "NFA State Weekend" Program, which is free training, room, and board Friday through Sunday for the cost of a registration fee (I think it's $75 a person).

You just have to get your people to the Academy and they will receive world-class training (and certificates, if that's your motivation) plus the chance to meet firefighters from different parts of your State as well as at least one other State during the training. The instructors are seasoned professionals teaching state-of-the-art fireground theories and techniques.

Do we need State-mandated levels of training? I don't think so. What we need is a commitment from each and every one of us to stop fighting fires by the seat of our pants, and research and learn the proper methods, tools, strategies and tactics to fight fires.

As previously stated: It is not important if the person beside me is board certified and has a wall full of certificates from all the classes they have attended or not. I want the person beside me to know when to use a fog stream and when to use a straight stream, when to ladder a building, how to vent a roof, how to search a residence and how to search a commercial structure. I want them to know when to pull the inch-and-three-quarter line and when to pull the deuce-and-a-half. I want my officers to know when is it worth the risk to make entry and when to order everyone out and switch to a defensive attack. When to put a stop to 15 separate individuals failing to put out a fire, and switch it to one team of 15 being successful.

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If a certificate helps to do that, then boy, go get it! If it's hands-on training, then go get that, instead!

Notice I didn't mention career or volunteer? Doesn't seem to matter for the issues I list above, does it?

Every community has a Public Protection Classification (PPC) assigned to it. This is a measure, on a scale of 1 to 10, of the fire protection capability of the local fire department to respond to structure fires in the community. Class 1 represents the best public protection, and Class 10 indicates no recognized protection.

The insurance organization, (ISO) collects information via inspection, on a community's public fire protection capabilities and analyzes the data using a Fire Suppression Rating Schedule (FSRS). They then assign a PPC rating (also known as the ISO rating). Homeowner and commercial insurance rates are then calculated using this value.

If you are concerned about your ISO rating (and as a responsible officer, you should be!), you want to make sure some level of formal training takes place and gets documented. ISO documentation (FSRS) specifies all the items considered during an ISO audit.

You have to do a little digging to find training (which shows up as a sub-category of FIRE DEPARTMENT), the criteria include sub-sub categories for: FACILITIES, AIDS, and USE. There, the category is broken down further into training facilities you use, drills (including mutual aid drills) and training. Finally, training is listed as Company Training, Classes for Officers, Driver and Operator Training, NEW Driver and Operator Training, Training on Hazardous Materials, and Recruit Training.

That is how the number is calculated for Training. The Training number is one of eight different numbers that gets added together for the overall "Credit for Fire Department" number (CFD). That number is then combined with Credit for Fire Alarm (CFA) and Credit for Water Supply (CWS) through various calculations and a final Public Protection Classification (PPC) number is issued to your City/Town/District. Your insurance rating is based on this final number ranging 1 to 10.

This is how I understand it to be, but I could be wrong. I attended training on the ISO process a couple of years ago (and I received a certificate!) but things might have changed.
The big lesson there was to KEEP YOUR PAPERWORK CURRENT AND FILED OUT!!

From my interpretation of the point schedule, ALL members must reach the training criteria, so for paid departments, this is handled by performing training between station duties and calls. For volunteer departments, we need to have a new classification for "active" members (those who still train and respond to calls) and "social" members (those who attend functions and meetings, but no longer go to calls).

Look at this as a serious business, because it IS a serious business.

Whether you have a wall full of “official” certificates or have been trained by an in-house training organization, doesn't matter as long as the classes are conducted properly. Training programs lower your ISO rating so your tax payers pay less insurance. I do know for a fact that a part of your overall Fire Department rating is based on the number of hours you spend training. Period.

If you do not have a training officer for your department, get one. Ideally, they will get their Fire Instructor I or II training (NFPA 1041), so they learn how to put together training programs and lesson plans. If you are not drilling at least once a week, start!

I come from a rural community and I am a volunteer, too. There is NO excuse for not training, drilling, and practicing your firefighting skills! No money is no excuse! If even ONE person gets "Fire Engineering" magazine, “FireRescue” magazine, "Firehouse" magazine, or any number of other resources, you can put together a training program.

There are even free online sources (INCLUDING FILELINK.COM !!) where you can get ideas for drills.
Conclusion:
I am a fan of credentials. You should be, too. You should be concerned that the folders of your members be full of their achievements and certificates, especially if you are interested in seeing them advance.

I think if you attend a training session, you should get a certificate. I have a folder full of them, but I also know they are nothing more than a testimony that I kept a seat warm during the lesson. They do not speak to my capabilities. I let my behavior on the fire ground profess my capabilities.

It is important to me that members of my team know what to do. Whether they learned that skill by experience or in a classroom.

What is more important, credentials or experience? This is the wrong question. I think the more important question is: Did you learn your skills enough to perform them or not?
It is not important HOW you learned, but it is important THAT you learned.
Thank you for giving me your attention!
Stay Low and Keep Checking Under the Smoke!
Chief Ed Raposo, (Ret.)

This series of articles takes on a very informal approach in discussing key aspects of Fire Service issues relevant to today’s firefighters and officers. Similar to a post-incident debriefing back at the firehouse, this series, titled “The Kitchen Table Debrief – (Title)” will hopefully foster discussion, and comments Possibly, if we are not careful, we all may actually learn something along the way!

Highest Paying States for Firefighters (2011)

FireLink | Bureau of Labor Statistics — Fri, 13 May 2011 08:13:00 -0700

Firefighters don't get into public service and risk their lives for the money, but some firefighters do earn more in certain locations due to demand. FireLink did the research and found five states that pay top dollar for firefighters.

Next page: Highest Paying States for Firefighters

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Highest Paying State #5

Nevada

Annual Mean Wage: $56,250

There are 2,030 firefighters in Nevada, which ranks as the fifth highest paying state for firefighters.

Get informed on Nevada fire academies.

Read the guide to becoming a firefighter.

Search for jobs in Nevada.

Browse degree programs for firefighters in Nevada.

Next Page: #4 Highest Paying State for Firefighters

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Highest Paying State #4

New York

Annual Mean Wage: $59,400

There are 13,320 firefighters in New York, which ranks as the fourth highest paying state for firefighters.

Get informed on New York fire academies.

Read the guide to becoming a firefighter.

Search for jobs in New York.

Browse degree programs for firefighters in New York.

Next Page: #3 Highest Paying State for Firefighters

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Highest Paying State #3

Washington

Annual Mean Wage: $62,950

There are 9,400 firefighters in, which ranks as the third highest paying state for firefighters.

Get informed on Washington fire academies.

Read the guide to becoming a firefighter.

Search for jobs in Washington.

Browse degree programs for firefighters in Washington.

Next Page: #2 Highest Paying State for Firefighters

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Highest Paying State #2

California

Annual Mean Wage: $66,950

There are 34,940 firefighters in California, which ranks as the second highest paying state for firefighters.

Get informed on California fire academies.

Read the guide to becoming a firefighter.

Search for jobs in California.

Browse degree programs for firefighters in California.

Next Page: #1 Highest Paying State for Firefighters

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Highest Paying State #1

New Jersey

Annual Mean Wage: $71,810

There are 5,360 firefighters in New Jersey, which ranks as the highest paying state for firefighters.

Get informed on New Jersey fire academies.

Read the guide to becoming a firefighter.

Search for jobs in New Jersey.

Browse degree programs for firefighters in New Jersey.

Source: http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes332011.htm

Career Resources:

5 Steps to Becoming a Firefighter

15 Toughest Interview Questions & Answers

Top 25 Cities for Firefighters

Highest Paying States and Metropolises for Firefighters

Kendra Weikman | FireLink.com — Thu, 16 Dec 2010 13:27:00 -0800

Firefighters control and extinguish fires or respond to emergency situations where life, property, or the environment is at risk. The following estimates are a guide to help you navigate, state by state, the fire and rescue employment gauntlet.

h4. +Top Five Best-Paying Firefighting Jobs By State+

(_*These stats are based off of mean salaries ending in the year 2009_)

	State	Hourly Mean Wage
1.	New Jersey	$34.53
2.	California	$32.19
3.	Washington	$30.27
4.	New York	$28.56
5.	Nevada	$27.04

h4. +Top Paying Industries for Fire Rescue+

	State	Hourly Mean Wage
1.	Computer Systems Design and Related Services	$30.57
2.	Colleges, Universities, and Professional Schools	$28.18
3.	Petroleum and Coal Products Manufacturing	$26.59
4.	Aerospace Product and Parts Manufacturing	$25.19
5.	Facilities Support Services	$24.77

h4. +Top Paying Metropolitan Areas for Fire & Rescue+

	Metropolitan	Hourly Mean Wage
1.	Los Angeles-Long Beach-Glendale, CA Metropolitan Division	$44.18
2.	Vallejo-Fairfield, CA	$41.82
3.	Newark-Union, NJ-PA Metropolitan Division	$38.62
4.	Oakland-Fremont-Hayward, CA Metropolitan Division	$37.21
5.	San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara, CA	$35.11

h4. +States with the Highest Concentration of Firefighters+

	State	Employment
1.	Ohio	19,480
2.	Massachusetts	11,850
3.	Rhode Island	1,640
4.	Alaska	1,060
5.	Washington	9,400

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections; the Labor Market Information Office within the State Employment Security Agency

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The Kitchen Table Debrief – Talk Like A Firefighter

Thu, 26 Aug 2010 11:16:00 -0700

In this "Kitchen Table Debrief" I will talk about the way we communicate and the efforts to make what we say clear at a scene and on the radio.

How Do You Say "Get Out"?

When you need to move people out of a building, or you want your people (firefighters) to withdraw from a building because you have changed strategies, or because of urgent new information, what do you say? "Get out"?

Maybe I’m jumping into this too quickly. Let me start with a less dramatic example:

How Do You Say "Snow"?

It is rumored that Eskimos know 100 words for "snow." Finding this to be interesting, I did some research into it. What I found was that they actually use about 12 different words to say 'snow'. The words describe dry snow, wet snow, falling snow, drifting snow and so on. The number was inflated to a hundred by including compound words, like considering snowball and snowman different ways to say "snow". Still, twelve ways to express the concept of snow is still impressive.

Now let’s look at the first example again:

Say What You Mean

How do I know that you know what I mean, until I see how you react to what I say after I say it? … What a complicated way of saying "Do you get it?"

Maybe you already know this, but for those of us who still trail behind, EVACUATE is not the only way to say, "Get out" of a building. But, the way it gets used and overused, you would think it is.

At least on my department, 'evacuate' is the only term we use. Getting some of our firefighters to adopt a new concept (like using a different word for different meanings), is like trying to get my dog to understand the difference between his chew toy and my old leather shoes.

Seriously, part of the problem is that we, humans, are kind of smart.

If we casually listen to two other people talk, they don’t always use the correct words to communicate. Sometimes, though, it doesn’t matter. Two people can be talking about a topic, then the speaker says something wrong, and the listener doesn’t correct him. If you ask them why, they will look at you like you are crazy and simply say, "I know what he meant!"

It is mind boggling, sometimes, because even though the wrong thing is said, the other person figures out what was meant, anyway. You hear the wrong word, and then you process it. You consider the context of the conversation and you determine what you THINK they meant. My wife and I do this all the time.

The problem with this capability is that we tend to be a little less careful about what we say, and we end up saying the wrong words. OK, they aren’t "wrong" but they are not as clear as they could be. The other side of the problem is that the listener has to take a moment to interpret what was meant.

Evacuate is one of these words.

When it comes to human beings inside a building, there are actually three scenarios that I can think of when we would want them to move outside the building.

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Scenario #1: There are people inside a building (civilians who are normally inside the building) and you want them outside the building. This could be because of an event or situation leading you to the belief that it would be prudent and safer to get them outside. You want your people (firefighters) to go inside and lead the citizens out. You want your firefighters to evacuate the building.

e·vac·u·ate [ih-VAK-yoo-eyt] verb,-at·ed, -at·ing.

–verb (used with object)

1.to leave empty; vacate.

2.to remove (persons or things) from a place, as a dangerous place or disaster area, for reasons of safety or protection: to evacuate the inhabitants of towns in the path of a flood.

3.to remove persons from (a city, town, building, area, etc.) for reasons of safety: to evacuate the embassy after a bomb threat.

Scenario #2: There is a reason that you now want your people (firefighters) outside the building. You want them to bring all of their tools out with them. Maybe you are changing strategies from offensive to defensive. You want your firefighters to withdraw from the building.

with·draw [with-DRAW, with-] verb,-drew, -drawn, -draw·ing.

–verb (used with object)

1.to draw back, away, or aside; take back; remove: She withdrew her hand from his. He withdrew his savings from the bank.

2.to retract or recall: to withdraw an untrue charge.

3.to go or move back, away, or aside; retire; retreat: to withdraw from the room.

Blasting air horns and screaming people usually accompany scenario number two.

Scenario #3: There is a reason that you now want your people (firefighters) outside the building immediately! You don’t care if they bring their tools. If they don’t need the tools to make their exit, they should leave them behind. You want your firefighters to abandon the building.

a·ban·don [uh-BAN-duhn]

–verb (used with object)

1.to leave completely and finally; forsake utterly; desert: to abandon one's farm; to abandon a child; to abandon a sinking ship.

2.to give up; discontinue; withdraw from: to abandon a research project; to abandon hopes for a stage career.

3.to give up the control of: to abandon a city to an enemy army.

Blasting air horns and screaming people accompany scenario number three.

Trouble is, since air horns are used for both withdraw and abandon, to the poor hose-dragger inside, without using the proper words, he/she has no clue what was meant.

We have an electronic accountability system. It is capable of monitoring and identifying when an individual’s PASS device activates. It is also capable of issuing a visual/audio signal to each PASS device to indicate withdrawal/abandon is necessary. From the accountability base unit, this is referred to as the "Evacuate" signal. (Even our accountability system got it wrong.)

Think about the phrases “evacuate the ship” and “abandon ship!” Is there any doubt what is meant by that? When I hear “evacuate the ship,” I think of an orderly, guided exodus onto a gangplank, dock, or other boat. Usually, the words “abandon ship!” are followed by people leaping from the deck, over the handrails, and diving into the water. It is more urgent.

We want our message to get across clearly and without confusion. Sometimes, our messages can be slightly confusing to the person receiving the message. This sign, for example… is not clear, is it?

[photo:161596]

Let’s keep this in perspective: Is it really critical that these words be used properly?

No.

If, in a dire situation someone yells "Evacuate the Building! Evacuate!" I think we can figure out that means it's time to move. It just seems that if we can have 12 ways to say "snow", and where we already have the words to more clearly articulate what kind of 'get out' message we want to send (evacuate, withdraw, or abandon), we should use the right word.

At a meeting recently, our Assistant Chief Engineer kept referring to all hose appliances incorrectly as fittings. He stated, "…that’s what we call them at work." We had to keep explaining that in the fire service, there are hose tools and hose appliances. Tools are items like wrenches and spanners, clamps, and bridges.

Appliances are the collection of fittings, valves, and intake devices. Basically, anything water passes through, is an appliance.

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Use Plain Text / Clear Text

I am going 10-7. When I come back 10-8, I will either 10-21 you or 10-25 with you. Should I 10-19 my previous 10-20? I heard this morning’s "horn nuisance" was due to a 10-54, not a 10-50! …What do you mean this transmission was a 10-30?!

10-7 Out of service

10-8 In service

10-19 Return to ...

10-20 Location

10-21 Call ... by telephone

10-25 Report in person (meet) ...

10-30 Unnecessary use of radio

10-50 Accident (fatal, personal injury, property damage)

10-54 Livestock on highway

OK, I get the need for "Plain Text" radio communications. My question is, when did it ever make sense to talk in codes like this?!

Use The Accepted Terminology

NIMS/ICS has common terminology. We should adopt it. Who among us can guarantee that the next time our tones drop, it won’t turn into a large incident? What if it is a rail accident? What if it is HAZMAT? What if it turns multi-jurisdictional? What if it turns multi-state? Do you remember H1-N1? (Does swine flu ring a bell?) Earthquakes, Hurricanes, Twisters, Tornadoes, Floods, Mill fires. Any of these happen in your district?

I sit dumbfounded with comments that I hear: "we can't use them (the NIMS/ICS terminology) because our members don’t know the NIMS (or ICS) terms."

Or my 2 favorites:

"…it will create confusion at the worst possible time…" and "…trying to apply NIMS terminology by the book without regard to how you operate daily could have an adverse effect"

Learn the standard. NIMS terminology and ICS terminology should be the same. Terminology of "how you operate daily" should also be the same. If it isn’t, why not learn the standard? Departments that fail to adapt will not have time to learn the different terms during the small incident that grows into a big incident.
Applying NIMS terminology should be the way we operate daily. We should practice it.

Here is an example of how failing to adapt will cause confusion, at the very least: This summer, at an ICS class at the National Fire Academy in Emmitsburg, MD, members from one department working together had not adopted the NIMS terminology and kept referring to "Side 1" and "First floor" as geographic locations.

When the instructor advised them to use the term "division" for geographic designations, their descriptions became confusing. Since they originally used "Side 1" for the address side of the building, they changed it to "Division 1" to mean the front of the building, but to everyone else in the room, "Division 1" was the first floor. This team was at a loss to differentiate between the front of the structure from the first floor. This confusion is exactly what you want to avoid at the actual incident. Follow the standards.

Front of building: Division A. First floor: Division 1. It was easy for everyone else in the room. Adapt or die.

The Basics (If You Choose To Use Them):

The term "Sector" is no longer used. Either Division or Group, depending on how it was originally used, has replaced it.

"Division" is used for geographic areas. The front (address) side of a building is Division A or Side A, not Side 1. Then clockwise, Division B, Division C, … Division 1 is the first floor. Division 2 is the second… The roof is the Roof Division. Sub-Division 1 is the first below-grade floor or basement (some departments use "Basement Division", if it is the only sub-division of the building).

The following terms should be adopted by all of us in our departments, so that everyone on our emergency incident is talking apples to apples.

Command Staff: Incident Command, Incident Safety Officer, Public Information Officer, and Liaison Officer.

General Staff Positions: Operations, Planning, Logistics, and Finance/Administration.

Branches are operational assignments (usually implemented as the incident grows). Fire, EMS, Law Enforcement, Rescue, HAZMAT / Special Ops are all branches.

Divisions are geographic locations. Division C is the rear of the incident (in a 4-sided structure). Division 1 is the first floor.

Groups are functional assignments. Interior Group, Ventilation Group, and Water Supply Group.

Resources are companies. A single resource is a Truck, Engine, or Rescue Squad.

• A Task Force is a combination of different resources: 2 Engines, 2 Trucks, and 1 Chief

• A Strike Team is a combination of like resources: 4 Trucks

Conclusion:

You say potato (po-TAY-toe) and I say potato (po-TAH-toe). Winning the war is all about knowing which battles are worth fighting over and which ones we should just walk away from. Your department may choose to say 'evacuate' regardless of the situation. Fine. But using clear/plain text is now the NFPA standard on communication, and using common, accepted terminology just makes sense, doesn’t it?

Choosing to use our own unique way of referring to things (like "side 1" instead of "division A") might make us feel unique, or perhaps, we think it is too difficult to learn the accepted terminology. Okay. We probably don’t have common radio frequencies anyway! See you at the next "cluster", guaranteed! Sometimes you say: "potato" and I say: "spud".

Communication continues to be one of the top 3 or 4 problems sited as "areas that need improvement" during post-incident debriefs. This "Kitchen Table Debrief" points at three areas to help improve communication. I hope you choose to adopt them.

Thank you for giving me your attention!

Stay Low and Keep Checking Under the Smoke!
Chief Ed Raposo, (Ret.)

This series of articles takes on a very informal approach in discussing key aspects of Fire Service issues relevant to today’s firefighters and officers. Similar to a post-incident debriefing back at the firehouse, this series, titled "The Kitchen Table Debrief " will hopefully foster discussion, and comments Possibly, if we are not careful, we all may actually learn something along the way!

Bridgeport’s Tears

Lt. Tom Kenney — Wed, 04 Aug 2010 08:22:00 -0700

It began as a normal job

Fire showing, second floor

We set out to begin our tasks

Like a thousand times before

Nothing special about this house

Just two and a half story wood

In through the back door

Adjusting pacs, gloves and hood

Though the heat was oppressive

This should be over quick

Engine men place their hoseline

And Ladder men their stick

We all have responsibilities

Which all work hand in hand

Water, ventilation, forcing doors

They have all been pre-planned

On that day search and rescue

Was Ladder 11’s assignment

So up to the third floor

Their company was sent

It looked like a quick stop

As the fire darkened down

But it had traveled upward

As smoke showed, dark brown

Suddenly we heard “Mayday”

Then “Mayday” once again

We all knew that trouble

Had found one of our friends

The Rapid Intervention Team

Was swiftly deployed

To recover our brothers

Before the building was destroyed

Though we got to them quickly

And pulled them to the street

We worked feverishly to save them

On the blazing hot concrete

Saving lives is our profession

The inevitable to postpone

But we just couldn’t pull it off

For two of our own

Nothing left for us to do

But to honor these brave men

The Lieutenant and the rookie

Will serve together again

Firefighters from all over

In a show of respect

Will send off these heroes

Sworn to serve and protect

Thousands of brothers will gather

And they’ll remember for years

The day they came together

To share Bridgeport’s tears

_Lt. Tom Kenney_

_Providence Fire Department_

Kitchen Table Debriefs - Hostile Fire Events (Part II)

Edward M. Raposo — Tue, 03 Aug 2010 07:37:00 -0700

In this “Kitchen Table Debrief” I will finish the discussion of some of the more likely Hostile Fire Events you may encounter on the fireground.

In PART I, we began discussing the most common hostile fire event, Flashover. Since then, I have been discussing this with colleagues and doing more research. Don’t worry; nothing has changed!

I would like to address a particular phenomenon, though. My research includes some sources from over forty years ago (when I was in grade school), to the latest IFSTA Essentials manual (version 5). Growing up I learned about the “fire triangle.” Then, when I joined the Fire Service in 1991, I learned about the “fire tetrahedron.” The basics of FUEL-HEAT-OXYGEN were not wrong, but they were simply expanded upon to include the chemical reaction - oxidation.

Likewise, I was originally taught that combustion goes through three stages, as explained in IFSTA Essentials manual (version 2):

1. Ignition/growth

2. Free burning

3. Decay. (Flashover occurs between the growth and free burning stages)

Now, recruits are taught that combustion goes through four stages:

1. Ignition

2. Growth

3. Free burning

4. Decay. (Flashover occurs between the growth and free burning stages)

IFSTA Essentials manual (version 4) enumerates five stages, making Flashover its own stage. It doesn’t change the behavior of the fire. For the purposes of the discussion here, it doesn’t matter what the number of the phase is. Regardless of the stage number we assign it, flashover will still occur when the room gets hot enough, and it will occur between what we call the growth and free burning phases. These differences do not, in my opinion, make previous statements wrong.

Next Page: Flashovers >>>

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When I left off in PART 1, I was talking about two things to do if you suspect that a flashover hostile event may occur. (Someone pointed out that there is actually a third thing to do: Put the fire out! It took several minutes before the urge to smack him in the back of the head passed.) The two things that you can do are: vent and cool.

If you are in the fire room early, before the massive buildup of heat and smoke, then horizontal ventilation may be useful. If the fire room is already charged with smoke and becoming superheated, you would want to either perform vertical ventilation, or no ventilation at all (closing the doors and windows in the fire room) until a hoseline can be stretched. The rationale behind not venting is to create an oxygen-depleted environment so the fire is oxygen starved. This slows the burning process (doesn’t stop it, though) and thus, reduces heat buildup. Of course, it must be determined that there are no victims or firefighters left in the room!

Unfortunately, if you are seeing indications of a flashover (intense heat pushing you to the floor; thick, black, rolling/boiling smoke; vent-point ignition also called rollover), and if you haven’t vented yet, it is probably too late to vent. Cooling the fire is still an option.

If you are on a search-and-rescue team, and unescorted by a hose team, then get your can-man busy! (If you are doing search-and-rescue without a hose team, and you don’t even have an extinguisher with you… what are you thinking?!) This is probably the last opportunity for the extinguisher to be of any use to you, though, if the building is about to flash, or close to flashing. By the way, the can-man should be holding a water-type extinguisher (the silver one!), not dry-chemical.

If you have a hose or hose team with you, some of you may be fans of multi-setting fog nozzles. In Europe, the Swedish Fire Departments have been researching the flashover phenomenon for many years and have given the rest of us some practical techniques for combating/delaying this killer. The Swedes have adopted a narrow fog in short bursts. Aimed at the hottest layer near the top of the compartment, they swear by this technique (discussed in detail in PART I).
In my opinion, it depends on just how hot it is. As the temperature climbs over 1000’F (538’C), … and beyond, short bursts from a fog pattern may vaporize before they reach the upper layers, where you need them. A more substantial burst from a solid bore nozzle or a straight stream may be better suited.
You also want to be careful of how much steam you actually produce!

We learned in the academy (or in NFPA 1001 Firefighter Level I) that the water to steam ratio is 1::1700. In other words, one cubic foot of water converts to 1700 cubic feet of steam, HOWEVER, that is at 212’F (100’C). The ratio expands as the temperature goes up. At 500’F (260’C) the ratio is 1::2400 and at 1000’F (538’C) it is close to 1::4000.

The backlash of steam application obviously needs to be considered. The average house size in the US is between 3750 and 13500 cubic feet per floor. Opening a fog nozzle for one minute into a room that is 1000 degrees F (538’C) will produce enough steam to fill the whole floor level with steam several times over (42,800 cubic feet of steam).

Survivability of victims must be considered. Better stated, there are no longer survivability considerations for victims. At these temperatures, survival is not an option. Consideration must also be made for interior crews. Any one on the fire floor, not just the fire room, will be saturated in a steam bath almost instantaneously. Steam is very unforgiving of loose straps and covers. Any exposed skin becomes painfully scorched.

Fog streams are very useful to us; don’t get me wrong. In an indirect attack from outside the fire room or even from the exterior, through a window, fog and steam are useful tools in moderation. I am not against the use of fog nozzles; I am against the use of fog nozzles without the calculation of risk/benefit being made.

Next Page: Other Explosions >>>

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*Other Explosions*

Any explosion in a burning structure is usually considered a hostile fire event. Firefighters and spectators alike hear a BOOM! and see a fire event and we all whisper, under our breath, “backdraft!” Thanks to Hollywood.

In reality, very few of these explosions are actually backdrafts. Again, I reference one of my virtual mentors- Retired Deputy Chief Vincent Dunn, FDNY. In his video, “BACKDRAFTS and SMOKE EXPLOSIONS” (Fire Engineering Books and Videos) he explains that most fireground explosions are: gasoline, natural gas, or propane ruptures (piped into the house or apartment for heat or food preparation); aerosol ruptures (aerosol cans of various sizes and uses fit this category); or arson flammable liquid explosions. He goes on to say: “Only after you have eliminated those possibilities, do you turn to a backdraft.” As Chief Dunn points out, the determination of an event to have been a backdraft is not made until after an investigation has been completed.

*Backdraft or Smoke Explosion*

“Did you check that door for heat, Tim?”

In the 1991 movie, “Backdraft”, this phrase is uttered by the Fire Lieutenant moments before a probationary Firefighter forces an unchecked door with disastrous results. He introduces oxygen into a superheated room and an explosive backdraft ensues. In the Fire Service, this phrase has become a joking precursor to an anticipated disastrous event.

In reality, there is nothing lighthearted, or amusing about a backdraft.

The higher the room temperature in the container/compartment gets, the less oxygen it needs to support flaming combustion. To a point. In post-flashover temperatures, and with today’s combustibles, comprised mostly of plastics or similar compounds, these temperatures are usually well over 2000 degrees F (1093’C), smoldering combustion can continue in nearly 0% oxygen!

Think about that! Oxygen levels in the room are nearly 0%, and smoldering (non-flaming) combustion continues, slowly (very slowly) driving the temperature higher... Since combustion is in less than perfect conditions, you get more gasses, soot, and turbulent smoke. This means more carbon monoxide (CO) in the smoke, and that in turn means more fuel in the smoke! CO gas has an explosive range of 12% to 74%. In other words, when the air has between 12% and 74% of CO gas, it can explode.

Even though the fire is only smoldering, pyrolysis continues and more flammable gasses, particulates and aerosols are released into the smoke cocktail.
So what, exactly, is a backdraft or smoke explosion? According to NFPA 921 (Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations), a backdraft is “an explosion resulting from the sudden introduction of air (i.e., oxygen) into a confined space containing oxygen-deficient superheated products of incomplete combustion.” In essence, oxygen is again added to the fire triangle/tetrahedron.

The NFPA 921 Guide is the definitive document on fire and explosion investigations and considered a required reference to fire investigators (NFPA 1031). This guide makes no distinction between backdrafts and smoke explosions. It also describes explosions as the “…sudden conversion of potential energy (chemical or mechanical) to kinetic energy with the production and release of gas(es) under pressure.”

The guide also defines the types of explosions as: Mechanical (ruptured gas line or oxygen tank failure), BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion), Chemical (reactions involving gases/vapors/ or dusts mixing with air), Combustion (deflagrations and detonations), Electrical (high-energy electrical arcs that generate sufficient heat to cause an explosion), and Nuclear (caused by fusion or fission).

Backdrafts fall under the “Combustion” type of explosion. The difference between a deflagration and a detonation is the speed of the reaction. In a deflagration, the velocity of the reaction is less than the speed of sound. In a detonation, the velocity of the reaction is greater than the speed of sound.
Backdraft or smoke explosion velocities are subsonic, therefore considered deflagrations.

Next Page: Recognition >>>

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*Recognition*

In fiction and movies, recognition is simple: wisps of smoke appear from below a door in an otherwise smoke-free environment, only to be completely drawn back into the fire room again. In reality, most times the environment is chaotic, with smoke charging out of every possible crack and crevice. This is because, in reality, there are multiple processes going on at the same time. Fire in one room may be going through the decay phase, but fire is another room may be in the free burning phase. Art doesn’t always imitate life.

I am amazed to read online forums or discussions on YouTube videos where firefighters will literally argue that a particular explosion isn’t a backdraft simply because it did not display the same characteristics (puffing smoke is a common one) of a backdraft from the movie.

A backdraft occurs when an oxygen-starved smoldering fire, in either the growth or decay phase of combustion, receives enough of a blast of oxygen to rekindle and reignite, pure and simple. Unfortunately, there are no indicators to predict a backdraft will occur, but there are conditions and signs usually observed whenever backdrafts occur, and we need to watch for these as a warning. The way to recognize a potential backdraft scenario is as follows:

•Thick smoke, under pressure, puffing or pushing out from small openings
•Smoke flowing back into a burning room just after a firefighter advance, forcible entry, of ventilation operation
•Dense black or dark brown smoke indicating a large quantity of CO gas in the smoke (Smoke could also be mustard-colored)
•Window glass discolored from heat and smoke indicating a long decay-stage fire.

These conditions do not guarantee a backdraft will occur, but these indicators are usually present when a backdraft DOES occur.

*What You Can Do*

Your protection against a backdraft, other than your turnout gear (which may help reduce any injury from the blast), is preventing it from happening in the first place.

The steps you can take to attempt to prevent a backdraft from occurring include vertical ventilation and application of copious amounts of water. Unfortunately, both of these activities also introduce oxygen to the target room.

Vertical ventilation, even if it triggers an explosion, will vent everything up and out of the structure. This is usually the safest place to release this energy.

The application of water on the fire is your other option. Water is the tool of choice when fighting fires because of its heat-absorbing qualities, low cost and high availability. Water does not suffocate a fire, but it quenches the object that is burning, absorbing the heat and thus, putting the fire out (removing the heat and interrupting the fire tetrahedron).

Water application, however, may also trigger the backdraft explosion. Therefore, water must be applied using good practices, in other words, indirectly applied from outside the fire room (preferably from outside the building and through a breached window) crews should be safely positioned and angled to the side of the window or doorway. Chief Dunn, among others, refers to this as flanking the fire.

No matter where you get your information from, and no matter what you use as your source of training, the bottom line is: wear your protective clothing all the time on the fire ground, perform vertical ventilation, cool the environment, and keep out of it’s way!

Next Page: How Are Hostile Fire Events Similar >>>

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How Are Hostile Fire Events Similar

Hostile fire events share some similarities:

•Intense heat coming from the compartment

•Heat pushing smoke (making it appear boiling or turbulent)

•Thick, black smoke (carbon laden, and very ignitable)

•Little time between seeing these indicators and the event occurring!

•Sometimes you get a heads-up, sometimes you don’t

•They should scare the crap out of you

•They are dramatic

*Goodness, Gracious! Great Balls of Fire!*

With flashovers, you may get a dramatic fireball. This is sometimes confused with an explosion, and, therefore the event is incorrectly labeled a backdraft.

This YouTube video appears to be an example of a flashover labeled as a backdraft.

*How Are Hostile Fire Events Different*

Hostile fire events have some differentiators.

What causes them: Flashovers are triggered by massive heat build-up. The container cannot absorb any more heat. The heat in a room has nowhere else to go, so it feeds back onto itself, raising the temperature in the compartment to the temperature where everything auto-ignites. Backdrafts and smoke explosions are triggered by oxygen re-introduced to an oxygen-starved, superheated, highly flammable environment.

What phase of combustion they occur in: Flashovers can only occur at the end of the growth phase beginning the free burning phase. Backdrafts can occur anytime there is a smoldering fire during the growth or decay phases.

What kills: Flashovers are rapid combustion and the heat kills. Backdrafts are instant combustion and the blast kills.

Next Page: The Conclusion >>>

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*Conclusion:*

As I stated in PART I, the label you place on the hostile event –Flashover, Backdraft, Smoke Explosion- is of little concern. They will hurt or kill you if you don’t pay attention.

Thick, black/dark-brown/mustard, charging, turbulent/boiling smoke means watch out! Something bad is about to happen! The fire burns bright, and is the main show; the attention getter. If you want to know what the magician is doing, watch his other hand; watch the smoke!

Situational Awareness remains the top-contributing factor to firefighter close calls, according to the National Firefighter Near-Miss Reporting System. This means we need to pay more attention!

One last thing: I would also like to thank Mr. Faucher and I hope that he would be happy to know that I finally got it (read PART I on Pyrolysis)!
Thank you for giving me your attention!

Stay Safe and Keep Checking Under the Smoke!

Chief Ed Raposo (Ret.)

This series of articles takes on a very informal approach in discussing key aspects of Fire Service issues relevant to today’s firefighters and officers. Similar to a post-incident debriefing back at the firehouse, this series, titled “The Kitchen Table Debrief – (Title)” will hopefully foster discussion, and comments. Possibly, if we are not careful, we all may actually learn something from each other along the way!

This series is a collection of excerpts from a new book called “SmokeEater 101 – Anatomy of the Fire Incident”, and soon to be completed!

Gather at the Firehouse: Summer Recipes and More

FireLink — Thu, 17 Jun 2010 10:44:00 -0700

Are you the type to enjoy a hot summer day by the grill? If so then you'll love these summer recipes. So stop licking your lips and get cooking!

Sources:

Food Network, Epicurious, About.com

Recipe: Garlic Lime Bacon-Wrapped Shrimp →

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Garlic Lime Bacon-Wrapped Shrimp

Ingredients:		Instructions:
• 1/2 cup vegetable oil • 1/4 tablespoon lime juice • 1 clove garlic, minced • 1/4 cup Onion, chopped • salt and pepper to taste • 10 cooked medium shrimp, shelled and deveined • 5 slices peppered bacon, cut in half • 1 (4 ounce) can whole green chili peppers, drained, and sliced lengthwise • 1 avocado - peeled, pitted and diced (optional) • 1 lime, cut into wedges (optional)		• Whisk together the oil, lime juice, garlic, salt, and pepper in a mixing bowl. Toss the shrimp in the marinade, then refrigerate for 30 minutes to 1 hour. • Preheat an indoor electric grill for medium-high heat. • Remove the shrimp from the marinade, and shake off excess. Wrap each shrimp with a strip of chili pepper, then half a bacon slice. Secure with a toothpick. Repeat with remaining shrimp. Cook on preheated grill until the bacon is crisp, and the shrimp is hot, 6 to 10 minutes. Sprinkle the shrimp with diced avocado, and garnish with lime wedges to serve.

Tasty BBQ Corn on the Cob →

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Tasty BBQ Corn on the Cob

Ingredients:		Instructions:
• 1 teaspoon chili powder • 1/8 teaspoon dried oregano • 1 pinch onion powder • cayenne pepper to taste • garlic powder to taste • salt and pepper to taste • 2 tsp baking powder • 1/2 cup butter, softened • 6 ears corn, husked and cleaned		• Preheat grill for medium-high heat. • In a medium bowl, mix together the chili powder, oregano, onion powder, cayenne pepper, garlic powder, salt, and pepper. Blend in the softened butter. Apply this mixture to each ear of corn, and place each ear onto a piece of aluminum foil big enough to wrap the corn. Wrap like a burrito, and twist the ends to close. • Place wrapped corn on the preheated grill, and cook 20 to 30 minutes, until tender when poked with a fork. Turn corn occasionally during cooking.

Ranch Burgers →

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Ranch Burgers

Ingredients:		Instructions:
• 2 pounds lean ground beef • 1 (1 ounce) package ranch dressing mix • 1 egg, lightly beaten • 3/4 cup crushed saltine crackers • 1 onion, chopped		• Preheat the grill for high heat. • In a bowl, mix the ground beef, ranch dressing mix, egg, crushed crackers, and onion. Form into hamburger patties. • Lightly oil the grill grate. Place patties on the grill, and cook 5 minutes per side, or until well done.

Scalloped Potatoes for the BBQ →

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Scalloped Potatoes for the BBQ

Ingredients:

Instructions:

• 4 red potatoes, thinly sliced

• 1 large onion, chopped

• 4 cloves garlic, chopped

• 1/4 cup chopped fresh basil

• 1/4 cup butter, cubed

• salt and pepper to taste

• Preheat grill for medium heat.

• Layer sliced potatoes on aluminum foil with the onion, garlic, basil, and butter. Season with salt and pepper. Fold foil around the potatoes to make a packet.

• Place potato packet on heated grill over indirect heat, and cook for 30 minutes, or until potatoes are tender. Turn over packet halfway through cooking.

Beer Can Chicken →

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Beer Can Chicken

Ingredients:		Instructions:
• 1/3 cup brown sugar • 2 tablespoons chili powder • 2 tablespoons paprika • 2 teaspoons dry mustard • 1/2 teaspoon salt • 1/4 teaspoon ground black pepper • 1/2 (12 fluid ounce) can beer • 1 (3 pound) whole chicken		• Preheat an outdoor grill for medium-high heat, about 375 degrees F (190 degrees C). Mix the brown sugar, chili powder, paprika, dry mustard, salt, and ground black pepper in a small bowl. Place the half-full can of beer in the center of a plate. • Rinse chicken under cold running water. Discard giblets and neck from chicken; drain and pat dry. Fit whole chicken over the can of beer with the legs on the bottom; keep upright. Sprinkle 1 teaspoon of the seasoning mix into the top cavity of the chicken. The beer may foam up when the seasonings fall inside the can. Rub the remaining seasoning mix over the entire surface of the chicken. • Place the chicken, standing on the can, directly on the preheated grill. Close the lid and barbeque the chicken until no longer pink at the bone and the juices run clear, about 1 hour 15 minutes. An instant-read thermometer inserted into the thickest part of the thigh, near the bone should read 180 degrees F (82 degrees C). Remove the chicken from the grill and discard the beer can. Cover the chicken with a doubled sheet of aluminum foil, and allow to rest in a warm area for 10 minutes before slicing.

Blue Cheese Burgers →

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Blue Cheese Burgers

Ingredients:		Instructions:
• 3 pounds lean ground beef • 4 ounces blue cheese, crumbled • 1/2 cup minced fresh chives • 1/4 teaspoon hot pepper sauce • 1 teaspoon Worcestershire sauce • 1 teaspoon coarsely ground black pepper • 1 1/2 teaspoons salt • 1 teaspoon dry mustard • 12 French rolls or hamburger buns		• In a large bowl, mix the ground beef, blue cheese, chives, hot pepper sauce, Worcestershire sauce, black pepper, salt, and mustard. Cover, and refrigerate for 2 hours. • Preheat grill for high heat. Gently form the burger mixture into about 12 patties. • Oil the grill grate. Grill patties 5 minutes per side, or until well done. Serve on rolls.

Grilled Spicy Skirt Steak →

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Grilled Spicy Skirt Steak

Ingredients:		Instructions:
• a 3/4- to 1-pound skirt steak, trimmed • 1 tablespoon chili powder • 1 teaspoon ground cumin • 1 large garlic clove, minced and mashed to a paste with 1 teaspoon coarse salt • 2 teaspoons Worcestershire sauce • 1 teaspoon sugar • 3/4 teaspoon freshly ground black pepper • 1/4 teaspoon allspice • 1 tablespoon vegetable oil • flour tortillas, warmed, as an accompaniment		• Prepare grill if using. Cut steak into large pieces to fit on a grill or in a ridged grill pan. • In a small bowl stir together chili powder, cumin, garlic paste, Worcestershire sauce, sugar, pepper, allspice, and oil and rub all over meat. Marinate meat in a resealable plastic bag, chilled, 20 minutes. • Grill steak on a well-oiled rack set about 4 inches over glowing coals or in hot well-seasoned ridged grill pan over moderately high heat 3 to 5 minutes on each side, or until just springy to touch, for medium-rare meat. Let steak stand on a cutting board 5 minutes and cut across grain on the diagonal into thin slices. • Serve steak with tortillas.

Old-Fashioned Potato Salad →

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Old-Fashioned Potato Salad

Ingredients:		Instructions:
• 2 lb equal-size boiling potatoes • 3 tablespoons cider vinegar • 1 teaspoon salt • 3/4 cup chopped celery • 1/2 cup chopped white onion • 3 large hard-boiled eggs, chopped • 1 cup mayonnaise		• Cover potatoes with salted cold water; by 2 inches in a 3-quart saucepan and simmer uncovered until just tender, 15 to 25 minutes, depending on size of potatoes. Drain in a colander and cool slightly. • While potatoes are simmering, whisk together vinegar and salt in a large bowl until salt is dissolved. • When potatoes are just cool enough to handle, peel and cut into 1-inch pieces, adding to vinegar mixture as cut, and toss gently with a rubber spatula to combine. Let cool to room temperature, then add remaining ingredients and salt and pepper to taste and stir gently to combine. Serve at room temperature or chilled.

Grilled Peaches with Whipped Cream and Caramel →

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Grilled Peaches with Whipped Cream and Caramel

Ingredients:		Instructions:
• 6 firm but ripe large peaches, peeled, halved, pitted • 1/2 cup sugar • 1 cup chilled whipping cream • 3/4 cup caramel sauce, warmed		• Prepare barbecue (medium-high heat). Arrange peach halves, cut side up, on baking sheet; sprinkle peaches with sugar. Let stand until sugar begins to soften, about 10 minutes. Place peaches on grill, sugared side down. Grill until tender and slightly charred, about 4 minutes per side. Transfer peach halves to plates. • Using electric mixer, beat whipping cream in bowl until peaks form; fold in 1/4 cup warm caramel sauce just until streaks appear. Spoon caramel whipped cream alongside peaches. Serve, passing remaining caramel sauce separately.

Related Reads:

25 Best Ways to Prank the Probie

Most Esteemed Job: Firefighter

What Is Your
Worst Call?

FireLink's Fundraisers for Firefighters

FireLink | Kendra Weikman, Associate Editor — Thu, 17 Jun 2010 10:44:00 -0700

Looking to raise money for your department or charitable cause with a unique and successful fundraiser? FireLink understands the importance of raising money, and we have done our best to supply you with some new and creative ideas for your next fundraiser. Check out some of our suggestions below and share your stories of success with the rest of the FireLink community!

Golf Tournament →

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Golf Tournament

A great warm-weather fundraising event is a golf fundraiser. Popular for men and women alike, hosting your own golf tournament is actually fairly easy and, if done right, you can raise a significant amount of money.

Most golf courses will give you a substantial discount for a large group, particularly if you're scheduled for a weekday when traffic is low. You can charge the regular price and do quite well. Or, you can pocket the discount, markup the regular greens fee by $10, and do even better.

Contact local businesses and ask them to sponsor a hole. To attract eighteen sponsors, make it affordable, say $100 or so. Show them a mockup of the signs that will be placed for each sponsor and your event program where you'll list all your sponsors.

Load up the back of a golf cart with ice and cold drinks, then drive the course and sell your golfers what they want. Cold beer and sodas are the best sellers, but don't forget to include snack foods like pretzels and chips.

Firefighter Calendar →

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Firefighter Calendar

You knew it had to be on here somewhere, so who not in the beginning? The success of the firefighter calendar for raising money for charity is undeniable.

Depending on a few different options, you can put a calendar together at a relatively low cost.

Do your research when it comes to a photographer. Amateur photographers charge less, but be sure to look at a portfolio before hiring. If you decide to hire a professional be sure to compare their rates with other photographers around town.

Will you have your calendars professionally printed and bound, or will you take the cheaper route and take it to Kinkos? Typically the more calendars you have printed; the less it will cost you per calendar.

Once the calendars are printed ask some volunteers to set up booths at the local mall and sell the calendars. Make sure to have a few of the “models” present to sign the calendars for their adoring fans.

Online Auctions →

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Online Auctions

A site called IDonateToCharity.org developed a great online auction site that lets anyone auction off items and have the money donated directly to a charity or non-profit in their name.

Many communities are raising thousands of dollars for their local fire house by having people sell used household items through online auctions. “Better then a garage sale” one user said.

Once an item sells, the money is collected by the site to prevent fraud, a shipping label is generated (if needed) and the money is mailed to the fire house in the seller’s name.

Tax receipts are automatically generated for tax write-offs and best of all, it’s FREE to use! When a fire house signs up with the site, they can receive the money directly from the buyer and not wait for a check in the mail. This is quickly becoming one of the most successful ways of raising money due to ease of use.

Firefighter Beauty Contest →

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Firefighter Beauty Contest

Ok now before you think of strutting down a catwalk in your boxers, this fundraiser falls more to the humorous side of things. Don't get us wrong you will need a few brave men for this event, but instead of sashaying down the catwalk in silk boxers they will debuting their favorites in women’s fashion.

Make it a big event by inviting the newspaper, radio and local television stations to host the event. You might even get some free publicity!M

Ask a dozen guys from the fire department to tap into their feminine sides. They should deck themselves out in makeup, wigs, stockings, purses, heels and their best dress.

You can make this event as humorous as you want to by including a talent competition and even a swimsuit competition. Charge $10 to $35 a ticket. Believe us when we say that the audience will get their moneys worth in laughter out of the evening.

Sports Tournaments →

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Sports Tournament and Carnival

We don’t necessarily mean football or basketball here. You can create a sports contest in which firefighters contend against citizens young and old in different competitive and entertaining events.

Can the teacher next door beat a firefighter in a potato sack race? What about challenging that kid down the street to an arm wrestling match? (Make sure the kids win!) What about obstacle courses and horseshoes?

Have a special event where your department competes against itself. Set up an Ironman-type competition to show off what your firefighters can do.

This is a great fundraiser to hold during the spring and summer time. Be sure to use a large, open space such as a park or field. Also remember to provide the public with free water in case it gets too hot.

Be sure to charge a fee to attend the tournament. You can even set up additional fee-based activities to help grow your funds even more.

Fire Station Open House →

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Fire Station Open House

Allow the community you protect to get an intimate look into what you do on a daily basis by hosting an open house.

Offering the unique chance for the public to get an intimate look into a firefighter's life can be an educational experience for them and a profitable one for you.

An open house allows you to have several presentations in one main area including: bake sale, station tour, equipment demonstrations, apparatus presentations, hose exercises, etc. Set up a space for kids to play firefighter-related games as well.

At the end of the day, set up a speech for one of your officers to speak about the situations you face as firefighters. If this is a fundraiser for your own station, talk about the difficulties you experience due to the lack of the item(s) you are raising funds to purchase.

If you are hosting a fundraiser for an outside charity, incorporate a representative from that charity to speak as well.

Mystery Dinner Theater →

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Mystery Dinner Theater

A murder mystery dinner theater fundraiser is a fun and unique way to raise money for your cause.

First, you need a location and that choice is critical to your success.

Your location must combine good food with exclusive use of the facility because your theater performance takes place in acts divided by dinner courses. You don't want other restaurant patrons coming and going during the critical scenes, so it's best to book a reserved dining room at an inn or a large restaurant.

Make sure the room seats a large enough crowd to actually produce a good profit. Negotiate a flat group rate that includes dinner and dessert. Check and see if there are deals that include wine with dinner or if there's a corkage fee if they bring their own bottle.

A basic rule of thumb is to set the ticket prices at double the cost. For example, if the group dining rate including meal is $25, then price your tickets at $50. Don't forget to include other costs such as script or performance charges.

Some departments will have their own members perform the mystery script. Others prefer to work with a local theater group so that the performances are more professional and attendees are less likely to know the performers.

You can find mystery dinner theater scripts online for a reasonable price. It's also possible that the local theater group may already have a working script in-house that they have already performed.

You can add extra value through a fundraising auction or silent auction of donated items. If the restaurant allows, you can also offer a wine tasting or whiskey tasting to raise even more funds.

Bachelor auction →

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Bachelor auction

Time and time again bachelor auctions have been very successful ways of raising money for charity – especially when there are firefighters involved. Host this event in conjunction with a dinner or picnic and charge an admission fee for entrance.

Be sure to provide strict guidelines to those bidding in the auction. List out acceptable "date" ideas and how long they are allowed to be.

After the meal start the bachelor auction. You will need some brave firefighters for this one – commonly the more they ham it up on stage the higher the bidding goes.

Bring out the bachelors one at a time and let the bidding commence. The highest bidder can either win the opportunity to take the bachelor out for the night. You could even suggest going to a few area restaurants, cinemas, bowling alleys and bars to ask management if they will donate money to your cause.

Firefighter Parade →

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Firefighter Parade

Throwing a charitable firefighter parade is a great way to get the public’s attention.
Before you begin planning however, be sure to discuss throwing the parade in your community with city officials first.

Your department can drive your truck(s) throughout your town, sirens blazing and lights flashing. Have some firefighters standing on the fire truck throwing candy out to the public while others walk along carrying buckets for donations.

Make it a family event and have fun. Hand kids balloons, play music, and perhaps even have a fireworks display at the end destination.

You can also charge a fee to food vendors who may want to be present.

Though it may require a bit more effort to put together, hosting a firefighter parade is sure to not only raise funds for your cause, but provide wonderful memories for all of those in attendance.

Halloween Pumpkin Patch →

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Halloween Pumpkin Patch

Autumn is probably the most popular season for fundraising.

While other groups are selling candy, wrapping paper, and pitching magazine subscriptions for their fundraising activity, how about looking into doing something different this year: organize your own Halloween Pumpkin Patch.

First of all, you need a pumpkin supplier. Go local if you can and don’t be too ambitious in the amount you order. Many suppliers will deliver.

Second, designate a good location at your station to have your ‘pumpkin patch’.

Third, designate responsibilities. Some firefighter will sell pumpkins in shifts, some will help with advertising, and so on.

Advertising is an important part of this type of fundraiser. Along with a highly visible location, your fundraising advertising plan will make or break you. Press releases and newspaper advertising is often free.

Use signage at every available location. Have volunteers stand with signs at heavily traveled intersections directing passersby toward your pumpkin patch.

Make your pumpkin patch visually appealing. Twinkle lights, some synthetic spider webs with obligatory plastic spiders, and any other Halloween decorations your volunteers can supply will make your fundraiser more successful. After all, it’s an event right?

Timing is everything. You don’t want to get stuck with unsold pumpkins. A week or two after pumpkins appear in the grocery stores and discount superstores is the time to strike.

Rent or borrow a free standing tent. The weather can be unpredictable this time of year and you’ll want to keep your customers and volunteers comfortable.

Offer other items like mini pumpkins, gourds, and baked goods. Don’t forget to ask for donations as well.

Art Auction →

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Art Auction

Simple and cheap, just how we like it.

There are several ways to host an art auction. You can ask the community to donate pieces of old art they don’t want any more, then sell them off to auction attendees.

You can also make it a more family-oriented auction by having children create their own artistic pieces depicting their ideas and views about firefighters and how they help the community. Set up an auction where citizens can bid on the artwork, their auction donations going to support a good cause.

You can promote this great event within your area’s schools, town halls, and other community meeting places.

Flamingo Flocking →

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Flamingo Flocking

A pink flamingo fundraiser is a fun and unique way to raise money. It's easy for any size department to put together and requires very little effort to keep it going.

The basic idea involves deploying a flock of pink plastic flamingoes in a participant’s front yard or outside a business entrance. A note is left explaining that they have been selected by a local firefighter to be "flocked" for a good cause. The note should then explain that they will have to pay $10 per flamingo to have them relocated. Remember to state that this is for a fundraiser or charity cause.

The fun part for the participant is that each flocking victim then gets to pick the next location for the flamingos. The flocking process continues for the duration of the fundraising event.

Of course, you will always run into a few killjoys who don't see either the humor or the good cause behind the flocking. When that happens, you just remove the birds, have the previous recipient select a new victim and get things going all over again.

There is a small upfront investment in the flamingoes, but you quickly recoup that cost within a few contributions. To speed up the fundraiser process, you may want to run one or two “flockings” at the same time.

Maximize the success of your pink flamingo fundraiser by dividing your flock into various size groupings. Reserve a couple of big flocks for businesses and divide the rest into groups ranging from two to six birds for residential locations.

Write up your fundraising manifesto and place copies in a large plastic Ziplock bag placed around the leader flamingo’s neck. This way your fundraising information and the previous victim's note will stay protected from the elements.

Newspapers, radio and television stations are always looking for a humorous story, particularly one that's for a good cause. Put together a press release stressing what the funds raised will be used for and include pictures of your entire flock at a prominent location.

To attract even more attention, dress up some of your birds in funny outfits. Give them plastic fire hats or water hoses. The more attention you can attract the more money you can potentially raise.

Being creative and a little wacky in your approach can be a good thing with your flamingo fundraiser. Don't be afraid of offending someone because it's all for a good cause.

Work the publicity angle to create public awareness of what your fundraiser is all about. Divide your flock into various size groups and create multiple streams of income by having each batch relocated every day. Use funny outfits and signs to attract even more victims.

And most importantly, have fun with your pink flamingo fundraiser!

What Is Your Worst Call?

Kristin Winters — Fri, 07 May 2010 10:07:00 -0700

The Worst Call: Nightmare Bank

When people find out what I do for a living, I get asked the same question time and time again:

What is your worst call?

Many thoughts run through my head when I am asked this. What constitutes a ’worst call’? A parent’s reaction when I tell them their child has died? Having treated a 12 year-old rape victim? A seemingly healthy 27 year old—whom I couldn‘t have saved—who arrested in front of his children? The 17 month old who seized so long he stroked, and eventually died? The parent who purposely overdosed his child? The teenage girl who was literally one big bruise, brought on by abuse?

Sometimes I voice these thoughts, and usually they are met with a horrified reaction. Just recently, someone brought to my attention that none of these calls involved blood, car wrecks, or shootings. That realization left me speechless.

Let me digress for a minute. I have heard fellow co-workers refer to this as a ‘nightmare bank.' Calls that make you lose sleep. Calls that come back to haunt you. Calls that, for some reason, will make you second guess your actions 3 years later. We all have them. The medic who denies it, in my opinion, does not have a strong hold on his emotions. Nor does she have the capacity to realize what an awesome responsibility the job entails. Any medic, who can be honest with himself/herself, will admit to a nightmare bank.

All of the examples above happened to me in my first year as a medic. Two of the calls made me lose sleep. One of the calls I struggled with so much, I eventually sought help for it.

Why am I writing about this? Because just recently I woke up in a cold sweat. After 3 years I can recollect every second of that call. Every word that was said. Every treatment that was given. And I have no idea why.

Different calls affect each of us differently. This particular call did not affect the others involved. However, each of them was supportive when I had a hard time with it. (This was one time I was truly thankful that I was seen as ‘one of the guys’). Likewise, I am always empathetic when a call affects my partner. You never know what will affect you, or your co-workers.

I personally choose to not talk about ‘my worst call’ to people who can’t understand where I am coming from. An acquaintance of mine doesn’t need to know the particulars of that day. They don’t need to know what I witnessed, what I did. Very few people know the story, or know the feelings, That Call invokes. I don’t deal with it by discussing it with everyone. I deal with it in other ways, ways that work for me.

Remember, don’t pass judgments on your partner. These moments do not make us weak, but make us human.

Tell Us: What was your worst call?

Firefighter Bouces Back from Near Death to Run Marathon

Glenn Anderson — Thu, 29 Apr 2010 11:21:00 -0700

Three years ago, Firefighter Matthew Long was expected to die after he was run down by a bus as he biked to work during the city's transit strike.

Dozens of surgeries and hundreds of hours of therapy later, a determined Long learned how to walk again, one painful step at a time.

His recovery is about to take a stunning leap - one that is 26.2 miles long.

This is the seven-part story of that journey.

Part 2: A "Horrific" Injury >>>

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After his horrific injury, runs that used to take Matt minutes instead lasted hours.

Part 3: The Comeback >>>

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Matt's battered body requires hours of physical therapy in order to meet the demands of marathon training.

Part 4: The Marathon >>>

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After months of pain and preparation, Matt sets out to run the New York Marathon.

Part 5: Race Day >>>

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Long's brothers from NYFD Engine 43 show up to support him on race day.

Part 6: The Home Stretch >>>

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Matt struggles through the last few miles but fights he way to a tough finish, where his loved ones are waiting.

Part 7: Looking Back, Pushing Forward >>>

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Matt, now "an athlete again," reflects on his accomplishment and looks forward to future goals.

These videos were originally published by Runners World. Intro from the New York Daily News.

Fitness Resources:

Preparing for Physical Fitness Training

90 Day Beginner Fitness Plan

4 Ways to Get Home-Grown Muscle

Wildfire: Are You Prepared?

USFA — Tue, 06 Apr 2010 10:51:00 -0700

More and more people are making their homes in woodland settings, rural areas, or remote mountain sites. There, residents enjoy the beauty of the environment but face the very real danger of wildfire. Wildfires often begin unnoticed. They can be ignited by the careless tossing of a cigarette, an unattended campfire, or from natural causes like lightning. They spread quickly igniting brush, trees, and homes.

Each year fire burns millions of acres of woodland across the United States.

We can better live with the land by learning about the natural areas we inhabit and what we can do to reduce our risk of loss if wildfire occurs. Homes that survive almost always do so because their owners had prepared for the eventuality of fire. In a wildfire, every second counts!

Safety Always Comes First in Fire Management

Click to Enlarge [Source: USFA]

For the fifth time in the past 10 years, the largest loss associated with fires and explosions occurred in the wildlands and for the second year in a row, it happened in Southern California, according to the National Fire Protection Association report on large loss fires in the United States.

The 2007 California wildfires destroyed 1,500 homes and over 500,000 acres of land. Nine people died as a direct result of fire and 85 were injured, including at least 61 firefighters.

No structure, or natural or cultural resource, is worth a human life.

When firefighters plan a tactic, the first question is always, “Can we do this safely?” If the answer is "no," they will take another direction.

Fire Management Decisions are Based on Many Factors

Not all fires are managed the same way.

Responding to a fire may include using multiple strategies. The response could range from monitoring a fire that is beneficial to the landscape to aggressively putting out a fire that threatens people, homes, or important natural or cultural resources.

Decisions are based on:

• Safety for the public and firefighters,

• What is threatened by the fire,

• Forecasted weather,

• Fire behavior, and

• What the fire and land-use plans or objectives are for the area.

Firefighters provide the right response to a fire, for the right reasons, at the right time.

Fire Seasons are Becoming Longer and Fires More Difficult to Suppress

We are never really out of fire season. Fires can burn at any time of the year in different parts of the country.

Several reasons contribute to longer fire seasons:

• An abundance of flammable plants and trees,

• Climate change, and

• More homes and other buildings in fire-prone areas.

Even though the last two fire seasons have been mild in most of the country, firefighters expect future activity to increase.

In Fire, We All Work Together

Preventative fire safety
measures saved this home from a wildfire.

[Source: USFA]

Local, state, tribal, and federal firefighters all work together to keep the public safe and natural resources protected. Pooling our strengths, resources, and experience improves our effectiveness and keeps costs down.

Lean, Clean, and Green Zone

Clearing an area of 30 feet immediately surrounding your home is critical. This area requires the greatest reduction in flammable vegetation.

Reduced Fuel Zone

The fuel reduction zone will depend on the steepness of your property and the vegetation.

Spacing between plants improves the chance of stopping a wildfire before it destroys your home. You have two options in this area:

• Create horizontal and vertical spacing between plants. The amount of space will depend on how steep the slope is and the size of the plants.

• Large trees do not have to be cut and removed as long as all of the plants beneath them are removed. This eliminates a vertical “fire ladder.”

When clearing vegetation, use care when operating equipment such as lawnmowers. One small spark may start a fire; a string trimmer is much safer.

Remove all build-up of needles and leaves from your roof and gutters. Keep leaves from your roof and gutters. Keep tree limbs trimmed at least 10 feet from any chimneys and remove dead limbs that hang over your home or garage. You should also consider a screen over your chimney outlet of not more than 1/2 inch mesh.

Most Importantly—Be Prepared!

One of the best ways to protect yourself and your family is to have a working smoke alarm that can sound fast for both a fire that has flames and a smoky fire that has fumes without flames. It is called a “Dual Sensor Smoke Alarm.” A smoke alarm greatly reduces your chances of dying in a fire.

Make and practice a home fire escape plan and set a meeting place outside. Make sure everyone in your family knows at least two escape routes from their bedrooms.

Master Stream Operations: Bringing In the Big Guns

Fri, 26 Mar 2010 07:45:00 -0700

It is extremely important to have the capability of producing the best possible stream with the delivery appliance of choice. This, of course, will have a direct effect on achieving the quickest possible knockdown. Throughout the years most of the attention has been given to the handline. There have been several types of nozzles used with various techniques. All have claimed success with their weapons of choice.

Master streams, on the other hand, seem to have been and continues to be, status quo, no big discussions and no new techniques for operations. The reason there hasn't been much said about the master stream is because of its infrequent use as compared with the more common and debatable handline evolutions. Master stream operations are more commonly used in a defensive surround and drown operation where the goal is to dump a lot of water onto a fire that has probably burned through to the outside of the building. It's pretty basic.

Here is a common definition of a master stream: A master stream is a heavy caliber stream delivered through a master stream water delivery appliance. A master stream is used when flows surpass 350 GPM becoming to difficult to be delivered from a handline operation due to nozzle reaction. The stream that a master stream operation produces is high in flow and usually in the form of a straight stream using a smooth bore tip or some type of combination nozzle.

There are three types of master stream operations, the fixed master stream, the portable master stream and the elevated master stream. There are two types of master stream nozzles, the smooth bore tips and the combination nozzles. The following information about master stream nozzles can be found in most fire stream management books in circulation today. It's information that needs to be understood to establish a base to operate from.

The most common set of smooth bore tips that come with a master stream is what is known as the stacked tips. The stacked tips get its name because it consists of four tips connected into one stack, which is then attached to the master stream appliance. The tip sizes and the corresponding flows are based on a 80 PSI NP:

1-3/8"	–	502 GPM
1-1/2"	–	598 GPM
1-3/4"	–	814 GPM
2"	–	1063 GPM

For master stream appliances capable of flows higher than 1000 GPM flows the following tip sizes with 80 PSI nozzle pressures will apply. Again these are the most common:

2-1/4"	–	1345 GPM
2-1/2"	–	1661 GPM
2-3/4"	–	2010 GPM

It should be noted that the standard rule on smooth bore tip nozzle pressures used with master stream operations is to use a nozzle pressure of 80 PSI. Nozzle pressures higher than this will create a broken and insufficient stream, according to most fire stream books. In the fixed and elevated master
stream portion of this section smooth bore tips will be taken to a much higher level producing high pressure streams that were never thought possible.

The combination master stream nozzle family has three types that are in service today. They are selectable gallonage, fixed gallonage, and automatics. The selectable gallonage nozzle has several flow settings that are manually set from some type of adjustment mechanism by the firefighter. All of the settings are based on a specific nozzle pressure (usually 80-100 PSI) for the nozzle.

The fixed gallonage has one specific flow designed into the nozzle based on the nozzle pressure. Again 80-100 PSI is the most common. With the selectable gallonage and the fixed gallonage nozzles, flows higher and lower than the nozzles rated flow are possible. The nozzle pressure will either be lower or higher than the rated nozzle pressure, depending on the flow.

The automatic nozzle maintains a near constant nozzle pressure throughout the entire flow range of the nozzle itself. This allows the stream quality to be adequate throughout the flow range. 80-100 PSI is also the most common nozzle pressure. It should be noted that the automatic nozzle is the most common of the combination nozzles in service today.

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Fixed Master Stream Operations, Give Me Volume or Give Me Velocity

The fixed master stream is a master stream appliance mounted via discharge plumbing to the top of the fire apparatus. It can be either permanently secured with bolts or removable so that it can be placed in the portable mode.

There are several makes of fixed master stream appliances used in the municipal fire service that use both combination and smooth bore nozzles and have flow capabilities ranging from 50 GPM to 2000 GPM at nozzle pressures more commonly ranging from 80 to 100 PSI. There are two basic types of fixed master stream appliances. The first one, which is the smaller of the two, is rated to flow up to 1250 GPM and works best when supplied with 3" discharge plumbing.

Most makes of the 1250 GPM monitor can be moved and placed into the portable mode. The second and larger master stream appliance is rated to go to 2000 GPM. This appliance is permanently fixed to the discharge plumbing, which is 4" in diameter.

Now that the basics has been covered, new and more progressive information not found in the standard fire stream books will be introduced. Keep in mind that everything that is going to be read has been deemed safe by the manufacturers of the equipment being used. There are two basic rules that need to be followed during fixed master stream operations. They are: "Be Safe" and "Produce the Required Stream."

Safety

Let's talk about safety first. If the fixed gun being used is the type that can be detached and placed on the ground as a portable, remember to check the attachment device from the appliance to the discharging plumbing flange from the pump to be sure that the monitor appliance is in fact attached properly. There have been accidents that have resulted from improper connections at this point. The master stream appliance should be installed in accordance with the manufacturer's specifications.

A regular maintenance check should be done on the discharge plumbing leading to the appliance as well as the brackets holding the plumbing in place. Corrosion can weaken and cause the plumbing and brackets to fail during the master stream operation, which will most likely be catastrophic.
The operator of the fixed master stream appliance should never stand above it in case of failure. Always stand to the side reaching out to direct the appliance as needed.

The firefighter stands on the back side keeping him away from the appliance should it fail.

Finally, never exceed the maximum operating flow, nozzle reaction, and pressure of the appliance being used. More will be said about this later in this section.

Producing the Best Possible Stream

Producing the best possible stream for the job at hand can require several things. The first thing that needs to be known is the type of job the stream is going to be required to handle. Is the fire problem a high volume defensive-type fire? Or is it a quick attack offensive fire (Blitz attack)?

Is the water supply going to be coming from a hydrant system or will the booster tank be used? Are operations limited to large volume streams when using a master stream appliance? What about a low volume stream used for overhaul purposes or possibly a brush fire scenario where large volumes of water are not required for extinguishment? The list goes on and on.

The defensive high volume master stream operations are pretty basic. The goal is to lob as much water as possible onto the fire. Smooth bore tips as well as combination nozzles are well suited for the job. When using smooth bore tips, it is important to remember to choose the proper tip size to match the available water supply.

Just to refresh the memory, these tips have rated flows based on 80 PSI nozzle pressure. The same holds true for the selectable gallonage and fixed gallonage nozzles within their pressure range. The automatic nozzles will be able to adjust their stream quality to match the corresponding water supply availability based on a near constant nozzle pressure.

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TFT's automatic nozzle flowing 1250 GPM.

For obvious reasons, reach and/or penetration could enter into a defensive operation. The automatic nozzle is limited to a specific velocity and reach based upon the fact that the nozzle pressure is limited to one basic pressure range. This is not to say that the automatic nozzle pressure is not capable of delivering a good quality stream when reach and penetration is required. The smooth bore tips, selectable gallonage and fixed gallonage nozzles, on the other hand have a little bit more flexibility.

This is where this book will stray from the information that is published in today's most common fire stream books. Remember, the books say that the above mentioned nozzles are rated to achieve their flows based on a specific nozzle pressure. The reason being, pressures higher than this will produce a broken stream. This is where this book disagrees. For maximum reach and penetration, high velocity/high pressure streams can be produced with extremely positive results as high as 150 to 200 PSI nozzle pressure depending on the specific nozzle and flow requirements.

The following smooth bore tip sizes with their corresponding nozzle pressure and flows have successfully produced high velocity/high flow streams:

1-1/2" tip @ 150 PSI NP	=	817 GPM
1-3/4" tip @ 120 PSI NP	=	996 GPM
1-3/4" tip @ 150 PSI NP	=	1114 GPM
2" tip @ 100 PSI NP	=	1189 GPM
2" tip @ 110 PSI NP	=	1250 GPM
2" tip @ 120 PSI NP	=	1303 GPM
2" tip @ 140 PSI NP	=	1407 GPM
2" tip @ 160 PSI NP	=	1500 GPM

It should be noted that the 2"tip at 160 PSI NP produced a stream with a footprint reaching 360 feet.

The same high pressure operations can be applied to selectable gallonage and fixed gallonage nozzles. For the selectable gallonage nozzle, simply place the GPM dial on a lower flow setting and throttle up. For the fixed gallonage nozzle, all that is needed is to throttle up past the nozzle's rated flow.

The following chart shows the selectable gallonage nozzle high pressure operation capabilities. A fixed gallonage nozzle has the same internal design as the selectable, the only difference being that the orifice cannot be changed. Therefore the numbers listed below will be the same for the fixed gallonage nozzle.

Selectable Gallonage

500 GPM Setting		750 GPM Setting
80 PSI NP	447 GPM	80 PSI NP	671 GPM

90 PSI NP	475 GPM	90 PSI NP	714 GPM

100 PSI NP	500 GPM	100 PSI NP	750 GPM

110 PSI NP	527 GPM	110 PSI NP	786 GPM

120 PSI NP	550 GPM	120 PSI NP	819 GPM

It should be noted that all nozzle pressures in these flow tests produced good working streams. Remember the reason for high nozzle pressure operations is to deliver hard hitting streams. If a higher GPM is needed, adjust the nozzle to the highest GPM setting.

The only requirements for safety with an operation like this are to not go over the maximum allowed inlet pressure of the appliance as well as to not exceed the required flow or nozzle reaction for the appliance, unless authorized by the manufacturer. Again follow all safety procedures for the actual operation of the gun as well as the continued maintenance inspections of the appliance and related plumbing.

The 2000 GPM fixed master stream appliance is very versatile. It is capable of the above mentioned high pressure streams as well as flows up to 2000 GPM not to mention the low flow operations in the 500 GPM range. The one drawback is that these large appliances are not capable of being adapted to the portable mode.

They are permanently attached to the discharge plumbing in the fixed mode. Developing the water supply for a 2000 GPM stream will be the challenge. As mentioned in Section 11, dual supply lines and/or a relay pump operation may have to be implemented to accomplish the 2000 GPM goal, even with LDH.

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2000 GPM master stream operations

Now let's talk about low flow operations. Picture a large fire that has totally consumed the structure ending up with a large pile of burning rubble left to be overhauled? This is where the digging power of a high velocity stream can really have a positive effect. The following smooth bore tip sizes and corresponding nozzle pressures and flows have been successfully used in this type of operation. One point to remember is that the goal in this type of operation is to produce velocity, not high flows.

1-1/8" tip up to 180 PSI NP	=	504 GPM
1-1/4" tip up to 180 PSI NP	=	623 GPM
1-3/8" tip up to 180 PSI NP	=	574 GPM

This deck gun is using high pressure smooth bore tip operation

Working a brush fire from a fixed master stream appliance is a heck of a lot easier than pulling hose. When possible, a fixed master stream can make very large
sweeps in burn areas with the above mentioned high pressure stream operations. In fact, the 1-1/8" tip application will more likely be the tip of choice for this operation.

Now let's talk about blitz attack operations from the booster tank. NFPA requirements for tank to pump flow delivery capabilities state that a minimum of 500 GPM shall be delivered. Unless a department has specified their apparatus to deliver more, this is the flow rate capability they will have.

A very high percentage of fire apparatus have the 500 GPM maximum capability. A popular tip application for a 500 GPM Blitz attack is the 1-1/4" tip @ 115 PSI NP which delivers a flow of 495 GPM. This moderately high nozzle pressure produces a hard-hitting stream capable of penetrating deep into the fire which could very well be needed in an offensive Blitz attack operation. The 100 PSI automatic nozzle will also work well.

Calculating the Pump Discharge Pressures

The pump discharge pressure for specific flows should be developed from flow tests using a flow meter and a handheld pitot gauge. Now the dilemma. With the big flow range capability that a master stream has, what pump discharge pressures should be listed on the pump chart?

To list all would make for a cluttered pump chart. Before giving the magic numbers, it is important to have a thorough understanding of the maximum flow limitations for the appliance itself, for it is these limiting factors that will be used to establish the pump discharge pressures. There are three specific categories that have maximum allowed limitations. They are:

1) Manufacturers have a maximum allowed inlet pressure for their appliance. The inlet pressure is at the point where the appliance is connected to the discharge plumbing of the apparatus. Any pressure higher than that number is unacceptable.

2) Manufacturers have a maximum allowed flow for their appliances. Any flow higher than this is unacceptable.

3) Manufacturers have a maximum allowed nozzle reaction for their appliance. Any nozzle reaction higher than this is unacceptable. A flow of 1250 GPM with a nozzle pressure of 100 PSI seems to be the common denominator for all makes of the 1250 GPM appliance. A flow of 2000 GPM with a 100 PSI nozzle pressure is the common number for the 2000 GPM appliance.

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So what pump discharge pressure should be listed on the pump chart? The answer is simple. The pump operator should plan on throttling up to the maximum allowed figure of one of the above listed three categories (whichever comes first) unless something stops him. Does this mean that every time a deck gun operation is placed into service the pump discharge pressure needs to be maxed out? No. The pump discharge pressure is the number that the pump operator will try to reach unless something stops him. Some of the things that may stop the operation from going to maximum pressure are:

1-run out of water
2-run out of throttle
3-run out of RPMs
4-the stream accomplishes its goal
5-other rules set by the department
6-orders from the company officer

1250 GPM Master Stream Appliance

The three most common manufacturers of the 1250 GPM master stream appliances for the municipal fire service are;; Task Force Tips, Akron Brass and Elkhart Brass. Listed below are the specs for each of the three brands of these appliances in the fixed mode.

Task Force Tips	200 PSI inlet pressure	1250 GPM max flow	631 NR

Akron Brass	200 PSI inlet pressure	1250 GPM max flow	631 NR

Elkhart Brass	200 PSI inlet pressure	1250 GPM max flow	631 NR

When using the nozzle of choice the maximum allowed pump discharge pressure will be determined from one of the three the categories mentioned above.

Smooth Bore Nozzles

For smooth bore tips ranging from 1-1/8" to 1-1/2" the inlet pressure of the master stream appliance now becomes the required pump discharge pressure, the pressure the pump operator will be trying for. It is the first of the categories reached. The flow and nozzle reaction at the maximum allowed inlet pressures are below there respective limits.

Again those numbers are; TFT-200 PSI, Akron-200 PSI, Elkhart-200 PSI. The 1-3/4" tip can fall under the maximum allowed inlet pressure category or the nozzle reaction category. Design of the appliance and discharge plumbing will dictate which category comes first. The 2" tip will most likely be stopped by the limitation of the nozzle reaction reaching rated flow of 1188 GPM at a 100 PSI nozzle pressure with a 628 lbs nozzle reaction.

Flow tests should be done to determine all pump discharge pressures for smooth bore nozzles listed on the pump chart.

This concept for developing the pump discharge pressures can also apply to fixed gallonage, selectable gallonage, and automatic combination nozzles. Again flow tests will determine which of the three limitations will ultimately set the maximum pump discharge pressure for the operation. It may very well be the same pressure as the smooth bore tip operation. If not, a separate pressure on the pump chart for the combination nozzle will need to be listed.

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2000 GPM Master Stream Appliance

The most common 2000 GPM master stream appliances are also manufactured by the big three companies (Task Force Tips, Elkhart Brass, and Akron Brass). All three of these 2000 GPM appliances have a maximum inlet pressure of 200 PSI with a maximum nozzle reaction of 1010 lbs. The higher flow and nozzle reaction from this big gun allows smooth bore nozzles ranging from 1-1/8" to 1-3/4" to be used in the maximum inlet category which is 200 PSI.

There are other common smooth bore tips used with a 2000 GPM master stream. The following list shows the tip sizes and their maximum allowed flow based on the maximum allowed nozzle reaction. Keep in mind that there is a chance that the maximum allowed inlet pressure may be reached before maxing out on the nozzle pressure for these large tips. It cannot be emphasized enough that flow tests are critical for developing the required flows.

2" Tip	1503 GPM	160 NP	1005 lbs NR

2-1/4" Tip	1692 GPM	120 NP	979 lbs NR

2-1/2" Tip	1857 GPM	100 NP	981 lbs NR

2-3/4" Tip	2071 GPM	85 NP	1009 lbs NR

The 2000 GPM combination nozzle pump discharge pressure will be determined with flow tests just as was done with the 1250 GPM which will be based on the three maximum limitation categories.

Stay tuned to Part 2!

Nightmares

A Poem by Tom Kenney — Wed, 24 Mar 2010 10:37:00 -0700

I can't forget the time I spent
Putting out the fires
Though I try my best, I never do
No matter my desires

I go to sleep and try to think
Of nothing but my wife
But I lie in bed, and live again
The chaos of my life

My shoulder aches, and I return
To the night upon the ladder
Suddenly it slips, and I grab ahold
Of a light post I had straddled

From the roof, four hands appear
Grab me by the arm
They pull me up, and though I feel the pain
They keep me safe from harm

So I roll over and change positions
To try to continue sleeping
But now my knee begins to ache
And I picture myself creeping

As I crawl along a smoky floor
I fall headfirst in a hole
Hurtling downward toward the dark
I fear for my very soul

But just in time, a brother saves me
By lunging on my knee
He keeps me from falling into the pit
And drags me up, I'm free

Once again I moan, and try to find
A comfortable spot on the bed
As I finally begin to drift asleep
I see visions in my head

I see a young girl with her face beat up
Another under a truck
A young man crushed in an elevator
Where he had gotten stuck

I picture a family dead on the stairs
Who had tried to get out
A baby pulled lifeless from his room
And I hear his mother shout

I wake up sweating, get out of bed
And get myself a drink
Take some pills and wash them down
While standing by the sink

After a moment, the shaking subsides
And I'm ready to try again
As i pull the covers over my head
I try to shut down my brain

It works for a while, but then I feel
A throbbing in my neck
And once again, I'm back in time
To a night I'd rather forget

Every night, it's always the same
As soon as I go to bed
It seems the pain I feel in my body
Triggers the pain in my head

Firefighter Tattoo Showcase | Part 2

FireLink — Mon, 22 Mar 2010 07:24:00 -0700

Our Firefighter Tattoo Showcase article was a big hit, and we received a lot of requests from members who also wanted the chance to show off their tats and tell their stories of service and patriotism.

Browse our second gallery of FireLink member tattoos and share the pride and honor of the fire service.

View Member Tattoos

Just for Fun:

Faces in Fire
Can You Find Them?

Firefighter Tattoo
Showcase

The Most Outrageous
9-1-1 Calls on Tape

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FireLink Member emedic07

I had this done after about 1 year of EMS service.

It is of my own design and I have a celtic themed half sleeve drawn up to finish.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member FlightRisk

Proud to be a Scotsman and Proud to be a Firefighter.

Neither can be taken away from who I am.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member beerholder

The cross is the grave stone of a good friend of mine who has passed on, and the Maltese cross is to signify my 11 years as a volunteer firefighter.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member jumpseatrookie600

This is my rookie tat that the guys I trained with all got also. They said it is a tradition to get a new one every 5 years.

Mine is on the inside of my right hip, so it's still feminine but makes a statement when i show it off!

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member fire75

This tattoo is a memorial to my friend Austin. I got this last April.

This is a badge from his department that he was part of. He is the reason today that I am proud to say I'm a firefighter.

We miss you buddy.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member tonyklinger

The eagle is on my right calf. I got this done in 2004. I love being a volunteer firefighter and an American and the best way I can show that is through an eagle and the American flag.

It was done by redoing a tattoo from Winona MN. The artist and I designed the eagle.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member FF Gundie

This tattoo is something I had been designing for about 2 years. It sits on my upper back; it’s a cross with the words Honor, Fire-EMS, Strength, and Courage surrounding it.

I got in when I first started to work toward my career in the fire service.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member mikednyc

This was done for all the firefighters who gave the ultimate sacrifice.

We will always remember, we will never forget.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member cap603

I always wanted to get a tat as a badge of honor and to show my pride in the fire service so I finally made this one I liked last year.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member JeremyLawrence

The Maltese Cross represents my pride in being a fire fighter, The Celtic Cross is dedicated to my Father-in-Law who was a New York City fireman in the 30's, 40's and 50's.

The Celtic knots stand for the uncountable number of lives impacted everyday by men and women in the fire and rescue fields.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member HCFDchief

I got this to memorialize the lost brothers from FDNY on 9/11.

I have been in the fire service since the early 70's and know what the loss of a member truly means.

My department in Georgia will always be bound to the brothers in FDNY for their sacrifice and heroism on that day.

The tattoo is simple in design but goes directly to the message.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member BLMaxwell

This was my tribute to all our brother’s who lost their lives on September 11, 2001.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member jdjames

This tattoo is a work of symbolism commemorating my career as a Texas firefighter.

The basis is a firefighter kneeling in front of the cross giving thanks for a safe and successful career, while acknowledging my deep faith in my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ.

The Texas background recognizes that I spent my 31 year career (1978-2009) serving the great state and it's people.
The wings on the top of the scba bottle represent my guardian angel, my best friend and future wife with her initials on top of the bottle. She has always had my back and watched out for my well being.

The "16" on the helmet shield indicates how many years we were apart from the time we first met until our lives brought us back together. No matter what happens in the future, now she will always be with me.

The tattoo is on my upper left back and I got it as a "pre-retirement gift" to myself as I knew that my career was drawing to a close.

It was just three months later that I was diagnosed with colon cancer and faced career ending surgery and chemotherapy regiment during the following year.

My prognosis is wonderful but the chemotherapy resulted in chemical nerve damage in my hands and feet which ultimately resulted in my retirement. At least I was able to get my tattoo and will always have it as a symbol of the life I loved and cherish as I reflect back on my time as a Texas firefighter!

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member scbagirl

I had been volunteering on a junior program in Plains, Montana on a fire department, and I knew that I loved being a part of something that was bigger than me.

I started wildland firefighting right out of high school with the DNRC. After many fires, my boss had explained to me how the pulaski tool came about being made, by Ed Pulaski. I knew Ed and I had many things in common: One of them being a dedication to our crew.

I became obsessed with the idea of how a man could save his crew, and invent a popular tool such as the Pulaski, named after Ed still to this day.

I decided in February 2009 that a pulaski tattoo on my left forearm would represent to me my crew, the fires I have fought, the fires I will fight, and it is a helpful reminder that I need to grab my tool before I head up to that wildland fire.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member Es_fuego1756

This tattoo was to cover up a previous one on my left shoulder. I have all my certifications and finished two years of volunteer work, and this is my way of showing dedication.

I plan on adding a banner with the unit and station number.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member Smokey13

I have been in the fire service in NY State for 27 years. It is an unbreakable bond between the men and women all over the world, who place there lives on the line every day.

Quite often, the recognition goes without notice, or it slips away.

On Sept. the 11th, of 2001, a part of my heart was taken away. The tragedy that took 343 brother fire fighters, numerous Police officers and civilians will always be remembered. I have received this tattoo with honor and pride, knowing that they will always be in my heart.

I will also take my hat off to the countless fire fighters, Police officers, Construction workers and EMS crews, who are now facing illness from the debris of the 911 site, and who are dying, and or living in pain. These people were devoted to saving there brothers. One must never forget, these people are also apart of this tragedy.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member tdiaz

After a discussion with a close friend of mine I realized that many people have forgotten about the 343. I wanted something bold and simple to serve as a reminder to people I came across, and to myself, of the 343 who sacrificed themselves that day.

I wanted to be able to look down everyday and be reminded of the men that have paved the path for a new generation of firefighters.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member CDWilliams

I wanted to show my dedication to the job and the love for the service. I wanted the Old English lettering just for the style.

Yes it's bold and on the stomach but I'm proud of the career and the people in it.

Want to see a Part 3 featuring your tattoo? Email Us!

Hostile Fire Events: Flashover

Wed, 17 Mar 2010 09:39:00 -0700

In this “Kitchen Table Debrief” I will discuss some familiar types of instantaneous and near instantaneous combustion (also known as explosions and near-explosions), their warning signs, and some techniques for surviving these events, where they exist.

On the fireground, the major antagonists are our long-time adversaries: flashbacks and overdrafts… NO NO! I mean flashovers and backdrafts. These two hostile events are often indistinguishable at the time of the event, but are the results of very different circumstances.

I’ll also talk a little about smoke, smoke explosions, and the laws of thermodynamics.

Some Basics

In order to have a serious discussion about fire behavior, and the dangers of “Things That Go BOOM!” (otherwise known as hostile fire events), we need to have some basic information under our belt. Let’s start with some concepts and definitions:

Not everything that goes “BOOM” is an explosion. Not everything that is an explosion goes “BOOM”, either.

Explosion: NFPA 921 (Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations) defines an explosion as: “…the sudden conversion of potential energy to kinetic energy with the production and release of gasses under pressure. …Although an explosion is almost always accompanied by the production of a loud noise, the noise itself is not an essential element in the definition of an explosion. The generation and violent escape of gasses are the primary criteria of an explosion. The ignition of a flammable vapor/air mixture in a can, which bursts the can or even only pops off the lid, is considered an explosion.”

Combustion: Technically, according to the IFSTA manual (“Essentials of Firefighting IV Edition”), combustion is defined as a form of oxidation. Examples of oxidation are: rust (slow oxidation), fire (rapid oxidation), flashover (near-instantaneous oxidation) and explosion – like a backdraft (instantaneous oxidation).

Thermodynamics: There are only three laws, believe it or not, that define thermodynamics. These laws can be explained in convoluted ways, to try to impress people, or they can be explained is simple ways so that everyone understands them. Let’s go for the simple way:

1st Law: Energy can be changed from one form to another, but it cannot be created nor destroyed. The terms “energy” and “matter” are interchangeable for this law.

“So what?” you say. Well, here’s what we in the Fire Service already know: When something (matter) burns, it produces heat (energy), light (energy), and smoke (more matter in the form of carbon monoxide - CO, hydrogen cyanide - HCN, other toxic and non-toxic gasses, soot and ash). Keep that in mind because I talk about it repeatedly!

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2nd Law: This law states more information we already know in the Fire Service: Heat cannot transfer from a colder object to a warmer object, but it DOES transfer from a higher temperature mass to a lower temperature mass (warmer object to a cooler object).

Knowing this, we can confidently affirm that the characteristics of fire as explained by Fire Marshal Rimgale in the movie, “Backdraft” (1991) may be artistically interesting, but are not entirely true:

Donald 'Shadow' Rimgale: “It's a living thing, Brian. It breathes, it eats, and it hates. The only way to beat it is to think like it. To know that this flame will spread this way across the door and up across the ceiling, not because of the physics of flammable liquids, but because it wants to...”

We can see that flame spread isn’t just by volition; it also has a little to do with the second law of thermodynamics. Heat transfers from hotter objects to colder ones, and we also know it does this by conduction, convection, and radiation.

3rd Law: The third law of thermodynamics explains the concept of absolute zero, or the condition where an object experiences NO molecular movement at all. This is, of course, impossible, since all matter experiences some form of molecular movement, so it is more theoretical than the first two laws.

There is no Fire Service value in the third law, from my perspective. (By the way, I lied. There is also a 0th Law of thermodynamics, but that just seems too crazy to talk about)

Here are a few other useful definitions:

Heat Release Rate (HRR): The rate that heat energy is generated/released as a result of a substance burning (or going through pyrolysis).

Pyrolysis: The chemical decomposition of one compound into one or more substances by the exposure to heat.

Thermal inertia: The properties of a substance that describe the rate of increasing surface temperature (how hot something gets) as heat is applied to it. This is determined by the substance’s thermal conductivity (the rate of heat transfer through a material), density (high density materials conduct heat faster than less dense materials), and its heat capacity (the amount of heat needed to raise a unit mass 1 degree).

Like Marshal Rimgale, I believe fire is a living entity. If you, too, buy into the belief that fire is alive, then you should also believe that fire is an insatiable pig. It wants fuel and it wants air. It will consume anything in its path. The more it consumes, the more insatiable it becomes. As long as there is something to consume in its path, and as long as it has air, it will continue to consume fuels.

The more it consumes, the hotter it burns, the faster it moves and the faster it draws air in. Fire has a propensity to burn upward, but will burn horizontally if there is a fuel source available. Especially if its path upward is blocked, horizontal looks really good.

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Fire breathes. I remember, early in my career, we were routinely asked to burn brush piles for some of the residents in our District. Several nights a week we stood in front of towering piles of sticks, twigs, branches, and brambles.

The orange glow of the flames lulling us hypnotically as we stood there watching it until the increasing heat finally resonated on our faces and forced us to step back further and further as the fire intensified. We wore turnout gear, but no SCBAs since we were out in the open, so our faces were exposed to the increasing, intense heat.

I also recall the loud sound of the air being sucked into the rising plume of heated gasses rising to the sky. This inflow of cooler air to the plume is also called entrainment. I also remember being surprised by how strongly I could feel the air current being sucked in by the fire as it created its own wind.

Remember in the 1st Law of Thermodynamics: Energy cannot be destroyed, but it can be changed to other forms of energy and matter. As the fire consumes the fuel, it changes the fuel to energy (heat, light), and matter (smoke, which is carbon particles, carbon monoxide-CO, carbon dioxide-CO2, hydrogen cyanide-HCN, many other toxic gasses, soot and ash).

Fire burns either in unconfined spaces- out in the open (like the brush piles I described earlier)- or in confined spaces- rooms with ceilings and walls.

Confined spaces, are usually called compartments or containers, and obviously vary in shape and size. A smaller fire in a large container (like a small fire in a warehouse) burns and behaves like a fire in an uncontained space, at least initially. The smaller the compartment the faster things change, and the more you need to watch the changing conditions.

Normal room air is about 21% oxygen. Fire will continue to burn even as the oxygen levels drop to 14-16% in room temperatures of 70F (21C). As long as there is an abundant amount of oxygen available, the fire is considered fuel-controlled and it will burn as long as there is a fuel source.

Unconfined, outside fires are normally fuel-controlled. As fire burns in an enclosed compartment, it consumes available oxygen in the compartment. Once there is less air (oxygen) than fuel the fire is considered ventilation-controlled. As more of the available oxygen is consumed, the smoke becomes more carbon-laden, dense, and darker. The smoke takes on a turbulent, “rolling” or “boiling” appearance.

This is never a good sign.

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So what, exactly, is a flashover?

A flashover is defined as a hostile event that may occur at the moment when the heat in a compartment is raised to a temperature that all combustibles within that compartment self ignite (the auto-ignition temperature) and burst into flames. When a combustible reaches its auto-ignition temperature, flame impingement (direct flame contact) is not necessary for combustion to occur.

Flashover

In a nutshell, the life cycle of a fire goes through three phases:
1) Ignition and growth phase
2) Fully developed phase
3) Decay phase.

The transition between phases 1 and 2 is where a flashover could occur.

As I said, flashover is the name given to the phenomenon where heat builds up in a compartment to the point where the ignition temperature of all combustibles in the room is reached almost simultaneously, and the room literally bursts into flames.

The temperature range for this to occur is typically somewhere between 880F and 1100F. Just keep in mind, you can have a fire progress to the fully developed phase without the flashover hostile event taking place.

In high school chemistry class, we performed the following experiment: Place a wood chip in a test tube, heat the test tube with a Bunsen burner, watch the wood chip burn inside the glass (it actually off-gasses and chars as it is heated), and the gasses emitting from the open-ended test tube burst into a small fire-ball when an open flame is drawn near the opening. It was kind-of cool to watch, but the lesson was totally lost on me as a high school student.

Now, looking back, I can appreciate what my poor chemistry teacher, Mr. Faucher, was trying to teach us, but I for one, failed miserably to understand.

He was showing us that heat, not flame, caused the chemical reaction of pyrolysis, or decomposing one form of matter into several other forms of energy and matter. As the wood chip was exposed to the heat from the burner, it off-gassed, produced a flammable vapor, produced smoke, and charred the surface of the wood chip.

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Pyrolysis: When a fire starts within a closed compartment, like a room and contents fire, it passes through the three phases of combustion. The temperature rises, combustion continues to consume off-gassing fuel vapor, forms a plume, draws air in (entrainment), and releases; several gasses (over 2000, I am told), heat, light, flame, and smoke. Early in the process, the dominant heat transfer methods are first conduction (flame-contact) and then convection (heated gasses rising up the plume).

As pyrolysis continues, the products of combustion move toward the ceiling. Fire wants to burn upward, so it does.

When these gasses, flames, and smoke hit a ceiling and cannot continue upward, they start to spread horizontally. They will continue to do this until they hit a wall, then they will begin to bank down, giving us the thermal layering within the compartment. The dominant heat transfer method is now radiant heat. As soon as the fire becomes oxygen starved, it focuses on any source of more oxygen.

Once an open window, door, or other vent hole is found (fire is really not that particular) the heat, smoke, flame, and gasses move in that direction, spreading the fire. As the heat builds up within the compartment, though, the radiant heat comes back on itself. This is called radiant heat feedback.

If enough heat builds up within the compartment due to this radiant heat feedback, the temperature rises to the auto-ignition temperature of all combustible material in the room (about 1100F / 590C). All combustibles self ignite and you will experience the hostile event- “flashover”.

We observed this first-hand several years ago, during a Fire Marshal training exercise for accelerant detection, using a compartment with only three walls, a floor and a ceiling (there was NO accelerant in this compartment). The compartment was built in a field outside, and the weather was cool and windy. As you can see in these photos, we had no problem getting the room to flash. It took less than 4 minutes.

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Recognition

A flashover produces an impressive fireball, depending on the size of the compartment. This fireball, impressive though it is, is not an explosion, though it is sometimes labeled as one by some observers.

In fact, many times, even those with many years of experience are not sure if the hostile event that occurred was a flashover or a backdraft until further studies are made. There are several reasons for this, but mainly because the end results of both events are similar, even though the origins are different.

A flashover occurs because of heat build-up, pure and simple. Some would argue that there needs to be some level of oxygen starvation, too, which results in the rapid combustion and fire-ball seen in so many flashover videos. The container in the photo above has an open wall feeding fresh oxygen to the combustion.

From my observations, I believe the oxygen starvation of a super-heated compartment, followed by the oxygen contribution introduced by firefighters making an entrance, is what leads to the fireball often seen. The absence of oxygen starvation in many of these demonstrations is why, I believe, flashovers occur so rapidly. The absence of the oxygen depravation period seems to be why these demonstrations lack the fireball effect, but do experience the ceiling-to-floor fully engulfed flames.

In the past, if a flashover had occurred, it would have been within the first 20 minutes of the fire. With the increase in plastic furnishings and decorations in the modern home, and the tighter construction for heat conservation, heat rises more quickly in today’s buildings and can cause potential flashovers in about 10 minutes or less.

Many of these open-compartment demonstration fires, like in these photos I included here, result in flashovers within three or four minutes. YouTube has other videos of drills and presentations where you can observe similar tests, too. Some of these demonstration fires flash in even less time. It simply “got hot enough” inside the compartment/container, and radiant heat feedback did the rest.

Flashover only occurs at the tail end of phase one of a fire, as the fire transitions from “free burning” to the “fully developed” stage. Fire Service legend, Chief Vincent Dunn, (et al.) refers to this as the transition from a content fire to a structure fire.

There are a few signs that a container may flash: intense heat coming from the compartment, heat pushing smoke (making it appear boiling or turbulent), an intense increase in the heat in the compartment driving you to the floor (flat to the floor for a little relief), and rollover – also called flameover or vent-point ignition. Rollover is the term to describe the phenomenon of igniting gasses at the ceiling level, usually near the doorway or vent point (thus the term vent-point ignition).

They appear as tongues/snakes of fire, or bursts of flame. The temperature is hot enough to ignite the gasses, but not quite hot enough to sustain the burning of the fuel. Seeing this is a sign that the room may very well flashover.

But keep this in mind: The presence of rollover generally precedes a flashover, but does not always mean a flashover will occur within the compartment. If the compartment is particularly large, or the ceiling is high, the compartment may not flash. But then again, it might. This is when we go back to it being the fire’s choice, again…

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What You Can Do

There is only one thing that will prevent a flashover; cool the room. There are two ways to do that, but you don’t have a lot of time. You can vent the room, or cool the air with water.

VENT: Venting can be done horizontally or vertically. The idea is to get fresh air in the room and cool the atmosphere. You may be thinking, “If venting the fire is all it takes, why didn’t the open wall in the photos above vent the fire enough?” Good question. In fact, that’s an excellent question.

Even with one wall open wide, the remaining walls and ceiling held enough heat in the compartment and facilitated the radiant heat feedback, so that the flashover event still occurred. I would suspect that opening the rear of the compartment, or possibly one of the sides of the compartment in addition to the front of the compartment, would significantly affect the ability of the room to retain enough heat to flashover.

Alternatively, vertical ventilation would prevent the flashover, too. The venting though, must be done early in the burning process. By the time you are thinking of venting because of the pushing heat, or the ceiling-to-floor smoke, or the visible rollover, it is too late to vent. Unless, of course, you have a wrecking ball apparatus on scene.

COOL: Water can possibly cool the room about to flash. A straight stream if you have a fog nozzle, or a solid stream if you run with smooth bore. Aim the stream at the ceiling and give the room several, short blasts.

If you have been trained properly, you have been told to never aim a stream at smoke to extinguish a fire. Instead, you should aim the stream at the seat of the fire. That is the method for extinguishing a fire, and it is damned good advice. However, our immediate goal is to cool this container so it does not give us a preview of Hell-on-Earth.

The hottest part of the room is the cocktail-mix at the ceiling layer of the room; the smoke and gasses up there that are about to burst. Shooting blasts of water up there in “bigger drops” (to use a phrase Andy Fredericks favored) will cool the top layers of the thermally stratified layers in the room enough to delay flashover. If you have a combination fog nozzle, turn it to the right for a straight stream.

In Europe, they use a narrow fog stream with good results, but the droplets will do more good (more cooling) if they reach the higher layers of the room. The further up they go before turning to steam, the more heat the water will absorb at the top.

REMEMBER: Flashover means turbulent smoke, a lot of heat, rollover, then a big fireball. Sometimes, you get a heads-up and time to react. Sometimes you don’t.

To Be Continued in Part 2

Stay Safe and Keep Checking Under the Smoke!

Chief Ed Raposo (Ret.)

Photos taken by author

FireLink Exclusive: 5-Alarm Fire Gear Deals!

FOR A LIMITED TIME — Wed, 03 Mar 2010 07:17:00 -0800

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Pelican Big Ed™ 3700 Photoluminescent Light

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Gemtor FDNY Class II Personal Safety Harness

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Company: The Fire Store

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Bullard Traditional Fire Helmet Matte Finish w/ESS IZ2 Goggles - NFPA

Bullard introduces a whole new look in fire helmets. Courage, self-sacrifice and tradition are the words that define firefighters. Now there is a traditional helmet that honors these values while offering the critical protection of modern materials. The new USTM Series traditional fire helmet sports a textured, matte finish giving it the rugged look of a leather helmet. No compromises. That's the hallmark of the new USTM.

The Bullard USTM features a Thermoglas® outer shell, urethane foam impact cap, brass eagle, 6-point crown strap, sure-lock ratchet headband with removable brow pad, nomex chin-strap with quick release buckle and postman slide, and a black nomex ear/neck protector.

Boker Magnum: Compact Folding Rescue Knife

Whether you carry it as a firefighter, EMT, police officer, or a well-prepared civilian…this compact rescue knife should never be under-estimated! The black coated 440 stainless steel blade is partially serrated to handle all kinds of cutting tasks with ease. It opens easily with the thumb stud, and locks securely into place. Then the convenient liner lock lets you close it with one hand, almost as quickly as you can open it.

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width="200"/> Boston Leather: Hose Jacket for 2.5" & 3" Diameter Hose

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Firefighter Safety Report: Truss System Failures

NIOSH | John Howard M.D. — Mon, 22 Feb 2010 07:29:00 -0800

Background

According to the Wood Truss Council of America (WTCA), wooden trusses are used in roof systems in more than 60% of all buildings in the United States [SBCMAG 2004]. Truss and related engineered wooden floor systems are also becoming more common.

Today, more engineered structures use lighter weight materials, producing larger spans and clear openings. Trusses can be designed to carry expected loads, be produced economically, be safely handled, and reduce construction costs.

Engineered building components may provide adequate strength under normal loading; but under fire conditions, these truss systems can become weakened and fail, leading to the collapse of roofs, floors, and possibly the entire structure.

Truss systems are usually hidden, and fires within truss systems may go unnoticed for long periods of time, resulting in loss of integrity. Structural design codes often do not factor in this decreased system integrity, as fire degrades the structural members.

Fire fighters typically rely on warning signs to indicate imminent truss failure such as roofs and floors that feel spongy or are visibly sagging. Quite often, these warning signs are not good predictors of truss system failures.

The United States Fire Administration (USFA) reports that during 1990-2000, structural fires and explosions accounted for 46.1% of all reported fire fighter fatalities (500 of 1,085) [USFA 2002].

Statistics compiled by the WTCA suggest that 4.7% of the total fatalities (108 of 2,286) during 1980-2001 were due to structural collapse [Grundahl 2003b].

Fifteen separate incidents investigated by NIOSH identified at least 20 fatalities and 12 injuries that have occurred from 1998-2003 during fire-fighting operations in buildings containing truss systems.

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What is a Truss?

A truss can be defined as structural members (such as boards, timbers, beams, or steel bars) joined together in a rigid framework. They are most often in the shape of a triangle or series of triangles.

Some trusses are rectangular. Trusses can be built of wood, steel, wood and steel, or aluminum. Concrete trusses are not common but do exist, usually in very large structures (see Appendices B and C for descriptions of different truss types).

The truss framework is usually arranged in a single plane so that loads applied at points of intersecting members will cause only direct stress (compression or tension). Three-dimensional trusses (space frames) are very light in weight.

The design of a truss, which separates compressive and tensile stresses, allows for a minimum of materials to be used, resulting in economic benefit.

The top and bottom members of a truss are called chords. The top chord of a truss is in compression, and the bottom chord is in tension.

The inner members are called webs and give stability to the truss system. The unique characteristic of a truss is the inherent stability of the triangle. Web and chord members arranged in a triangle are much more stable than the same members arranged in a square.

The square configuration requires diagonal bracing, which then produces multiple triangles.

Truss Types

Although many types of trusses exist, three typical truss construction methods are most commonly used:

• Heavy timber roof and floor truss systems
• Lightweight wooden roof and floor truss systems
• Steel roof and floor truss systems

Each of these construction methods is described in detail in Appendices C and D, along with causes of failure for each under fire conditions.

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CASE REPORTS

At least three scenarios can occur in which fire fighters suffer fatalities and injuries while operating at fires involving truss roof and floor systems [Dunn 1992]:

1. While fire fighters are operating above a burning roof or floor truss , they may fall into a fire as the sheathing or the truss system collapses below them.

2. While fire fighters are operating below the roof or floor inside a building with burning truss floor or roof structures , the trusses may collapse onto them.

3. While fire fighters are operating outside a building with burning trusses , the floor or roof trusses may collapse and cause a secondary wall collapse.

The following case reports describe incidents involving fire fighter injuries and deaths due to fires involving truss system failures. The incidents were investigated through the NIOSH Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program.

Case 1

On March 8, 1998, one male career fire fighter, a captain (victim), died when the wooden-bowstring trussed roof of a building collapsed and blocked his exit route. The first company on the scene reported light smoke showing from a one-story commercial building.

While fire companies waited for the security doors to be opened, fire conditions changed dramatically on the roof. Heavy fire was coming from the ventilation holes opened by the ventilation crew. When the doors were opened, the fire fighters encountered heavy smoke with near-zero visibility approximately 15 feet inside the door.

The engine crews advanced until deteriorating conditions forced them to withdraw. During this time, the victim became separated from his crew and did not exit from the building. Approximately 20 minutes after the engine crews entered the building, the roof partially collapsed, blocking the front entry and hampering rescue operations.

The victim was later located by the Rapid Intervention Team, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation was performed immediately and enroute to the hospital, where the victim was pronounced dead [NIOSH 1998a].

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Case 2

On September 5, 1998, a 54-year-old male career fire fighter (the victim) died when an exterior brick parapet wall collapsed on him. The warehouse was constructed of brick masonry walls with heavy timber trusses supporting the roof. The front and rear masonry walls extended above the peak of the roof, forming parapet walls.

The first responding officer ordered an exterior-only attack using deck guns and hose lines. The incident commander called dispatch to request mutual aid from three additional fire departments. A career department (including the victim) arrived on the scene approximately 15 minutes later and was positioned at the north end of the building and prepared for an exterior attack.

The victim approached the building to open a set of large doors (each 15 feet high by 6 feet wide) so that hose lines could be directed through the doors. The doors closed as the victim returned to the hose lines. The victim was approaching the building a second time to prop the doors open when the brick parapet wall suddenly collapsed outward, killing him instantly.

Fire fighters at the east side of the warehouse reported a partial roof collapse at approximately the same time the parapet wall on the north side collapsed [NIOSH 1998b].

Case 3

On December 28, 2000, four career fire fighters were injured when a section of a church roof collapsed, trapping them inside. The roof system was formed using lightweight wooden trusses with gusset plate connectors. Two different truss systems were used in the different construction phases. The exterior peaked roof was covered with standard asphalt shingles.

The interior ceiling consisted of ½-inch drywall attached to the bottom of the trusses. Three 1¾-inch hose lines were advanced into the building by three crews. The incident commander ordered the first crew to enter the structure for an aggressive fire attack, cautioning them not to enter the structure very far. Two subsequent crews were sent into the building through a different set of doors.

Approximately 7 minutes after the first crew entered, the second and third crews met in a classroom. They noticed intense fire in the ceiling/truss void area where a small piece of ceiling in the classroom had fallen. Soon afterward, the roof collapsed in the classroom area, trapping and injuring four fire fighters. Three were able to escape by breaking through an exterior window.

The fourth fire fighter located the classroom door, and the incident commander led him into the hallway and out of the structure. The lightweight truss roof collapsed less than 10 minutes after the fire fighters entered the building [NIOSH 2001].

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Case 4

On March 7, 2002, a 28-year-old male volunteer fire fighter (Victim 1) and a 41-year-old male career fire fighter (Victim 2) died after becoming trapped in the basement by a floor collapse in a residential fire. The victims were attempting to advance a hose line on the first floor of the structure.

The roof and floor systems both consisted of lightweight, pre-engineered wooden trusses covered with plywood sheeting. The incident commander directed a crew of two fire fighters to take a hose line through the garage down the stairs toward the fire.

They were unable to reach the basement because of heavy fire coming from the stairway. They were attempting to check the interior of the house through a second door leading from the garage when the nozzleman's low-air alarm sounded.

They exited from the garage to exchange their air cylinders. Victim 1 and Victim 2 entered the house through the door inside the garage to relieve the initial attack crew on the hose line. The captain from the mutual aid department followed the hose line through the garage to the doorway to assist his crew.

Soon after the two victims entered the house, the floor collapsed, drop ping them into the basement. The captain encountered intense heat at the doorway but could not see any flames. He was unaware the floor had collapsed but heard Victim 2 yelling for help.

As the captain attempted to lift Victim 2 out of the basement, the victim grabbed and ripped the captain's self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) mask from his face. The captain was forced to exit from the garage and was later transported to a local hospital.

Two other fire fighters attempted to remove Victim 2, but they were overcome by intense flames shooting from the basement, which eliminated further rescue attempts. The area of entrapment was inaccessible because of the floor collapse. Rescue crews finally breached the masonry foundation wall and recovered both victims.

The area of the floor collapse was directly above the origin of the fire [NIOSH 2002].

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Case 5

On June 15, 2003, a 39-year-old male career lieutenant (Victim 1) died, and another 39-year-old career fire fighter (Victim 2) was fatally injured while trying to exit from a commercial structure following a partial collapse of the building's flat metal roof, which was supported by lightweight metal trusses (bar joists).

Victim 1, the lieutenant of the first responding engine company, reported light smoke on arrival at a discount store. The flat roof consisted of metal decking covered by wooden fiber insulation and asphalt. A suspended ceiling in the main store area approximately 12 feet high covered the metal roof trusses and obstructed their view from below.

Victim 1 led his crew into the store to search for the fire. After proceeding approximately halfway to the rear of the store, he directed two fire fighters to go outside and bring in a pre-connected hand line. Victim 1 and a lieutenant from the second en gine company proceeded to the rear of the store.

This lieutenant found the fire behind the closed office door and exited to pull a second hand line. Soon afterward, Victim 1 requested a truck company to enter the store and pull ceiling tiles to search for fire extension; a third lieutenant and a fire fighter immediately responded.

The truck company searching for fire extension observed fire in the truss void above the suspended ceiling. The accumulation of smoke and hot gases within the truss void mixed with fresh air as the ceiling was opened and violently ignited. The fire rapidly spread from the rear office area to the main store room through the hidden truss void.

Victim 1 radioed that it was getting too hot and everyone needed to back out. At this point, the roof system at the rear of the store room began to fail, sending debris downward, with several bar joists coming to rest on metal merchandise shelving. Several fire fighters were able to escape by following the hose lines toward the front of the store.

Victim 1 and Victim 2 (the nozzleman from the first responding engine company) became separated from the rest of the fire fighters and were unable to escape. As conditions worsened, the building was evacuated, and a rescue attempt for the two missing fire fighters was initiated.

Fire fighters working at the rear of the building heard a personal alert safety system (PASS) device and quickly entered to investigate. Victim 2 was located in the rear storage room close to the office. A second PASS device was also heard further into the building. Soon after Victim 2 was brought outside, the rear of the building collapsed, preventing further rescue efforts until the fire was brought under control. Victim 1 was located approximately 1½ hours later.

Victim 2 was hospitalized and died the next day [NIOSH 2004].

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Conclusions

More than 60% of the roof systems in the United States are built using a truss system. By design, wooden truss systems contain a significant fuel load and are often hidden from sight. Fires in truss systems can burn for long periods before detection and can spread quickly across or through the trusses. Steel trusses are also prone to failure under fire conditions and may fail in less time than a wooden truss under the same conditions.

The number of fire fighter fatalities related to structural collapse could be significantly reduced through proper education and information concerning truss construction. Fire fighters should be discouraged from risking their lives solely for property protection activities.

Unfortunately, fires are not predictable: conditions often deteriorate quickly, and fire-damaged building components, including trusses, can collapse with little warning. Engineering calculations provide data for an approximate time of failure under specified fire conditions; however, under uncontrolled fire conditions, the time to truss failure is unpredictable.

Early detection of fires involving truss systems is important for safe fireground operations. Pre-incident planning is an important tool for identifying the type of building, the building contents, the load-bearing and interior wall locations, and the presence of trusses.

This information will aid incident commanders in managing the multiple hazards in a fire. Today's construction methods incorporate lightweight building components, and this trend is expected to grow. Learning about trusses and their performance under fire attack can greatly enhance fire fighter safety.

Lives will continue to be lost unless fire departments make appropriate fundamental changes in fire-fighting tactics involving trusses. These fundamental changes include the following:

• Venting the roof using proper safety precautions
• Opening concealed spaces quickly to determine fire location
• Being constantly aware of the time the fire has been burning
• Providing continuous feedback on changing conditions to the incident commander
• Watching for signs of structural deterioration
• Employing a defensive strategy once burning of truss members is identified
• Broadly disseminating new tactical safety concepts learned at each fire

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Recommendations and Discussion

NIOSH recommends that fire departments, fire fighters, building owners, and managers take steps to minimize the risk of injury and death to fire fighters during fire fighting operations involving structures with truss roof and floor systems:
Fire Departments

Ensure that fire fighters are trained to identify different types of roof and floor truss systems and the hazards associated with each.

• Conduct pre-incident planning and inspections to identify structures that contain truss construction.

• Inspect buildings within your jurisdiction and note the type of construction, materials used, presence of trusses in the roof and floor, occupancy, fuel load, exit routes, and other distinguishing characteristics [Brannigan 1999, Klaene and Sanders 2000].

• Check the structural integrity of walls, roofs, and floors.

• Record data regarding roof and floor construction ( e.g., wooden joist, wood truss, steel joist, steel truss, beam and girder, etc.) [NFPA 2003a].

• Share this information with other departments who provide mutual aid response in the same area.

• Whenever possible, inspect buildings during the construction phase to help assess the different types of construction, materials, etc.

• Enter preplan information into the dispatcher's computer so that when a fire is reported at preplanned locations, the dispatcher can notify by radio all first responders with critical information [Dunn 2001].

• Develop and implement standard operating procedures (SOPs) to combat fires safely in buildings with truss construction.

• Modify existing work practices when necessary to ensure safety during operations around truss construction.

• Provide SOPs to all fire fighters for combating fires in buildings with all types of construction, including the different truss types. Also offer training on identifying buildings constructed with trusses.

• Use defensive strategies whenever trusses have been exposed to fire or structural integrity cannot be verified. Unless life-saving operations are under way, evacuate fire fighters and use an exterior attack [Brannigan 1999; Dunn 2001].

• Ensure that the incident commander conducts an initial size-up and risk assessment of the incident scene before beginning interior fire-fighting operations.

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• Consider using a thermal imaging camera as part of the size-up operation to aid in locating fires in concealed spaces.

• Account for the type of building construction (i.e., presence of truss construction) when determining (1) the number of fire fighters available, (2) the amount of apparatus and equipment needed to control the blaze, (3) the most effective point of fire extinguishment attack, (4) the most effective method of venting heat and smoke, and (5) whether the attack should be offensive or defensive.

• Continually conduct size-up from the time the alarm is received until the fire is under control [Brunacini 1985]. Analyze risk versus gain continuously during incident operations [Dunn 1998].

• Evaluate the type of structure (residential, commercial, etc), time of day, occupancy, contents of the structure, hazards, exposures, etc.

• Try to find out the type of construction, age of the building, and whether modifications or additions have been completed to help assess structural stability [Dunn 1996].

• Pay close attention to the conditions outside the structure, monitor the roof, and also check on interior conditions [Dunn 1996; NIOSH 1999].

• Plan for search and rescue operations before an emergency occurs in case a fire fighter becomes trapped.

• Immediately notify the Rapid Intervention Team when truss construction is identified.

• Ensure that fire fighters performing fire-fighting operations under or above trusses are evacuated as soon as it is determined that the trusses are exposed to fire (not according to a time limit).

• Establish a collapse zone when operating outside a burning building, since truss roof collapses can push out on the walls, causing a secondary collapse of the exterior walls.

• The collapse zone should be equal to the height of the building plus allowance for scattering debris [Brannigan 1999; Klaene and Sanders 2000; NIOSH 1999], usually at least 1½ times the height of the building.

• Use defensive overhauling procedures after fire extinguishment in a building containing truss construction. Use outside master streams to soak the smoldering truss building and pre vent rekindling [Brannigan 1999; Klaene and Sanders 2000].

• Consider becoming involved in the building code development and enforcement process.

• For more information about preventing fire fighter injuries and deaths from structural collapse, see NIOSH [1999] and relevant research on new structural collapse prediction technologies: www.usfa.fema.gov/inside-usfa/research/safety/nist1.shtm [USFA 2004a].

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Fire Fighters

• Use extreme caution when operating on or under truss systems.

• Notify the incident commander whenever truss construction is discovered.

• Communicate interior conditions to the incident commander as soon as possible and provide regular updates.

• Use a defensive fire-fighting strategy once burning of truss members is identified (unless someone is trapped).

• Expect imminent collapse once lightweight truss roofs or floors are involved in a fire [Klaene and Sanders 2000].

• If possible, avoid cutting the truss chords when cutting holes for roof ventilation. Cuts can weaken the roof.

• Avoid roof areas loaded by air conditioning units, air handlers, and other heavy objects.

• Be aware of alternative exit routes at all times when working above or below a truss.

• Consider using roof ladders or working from aerial ladders or platforms instead of walking or standing directly on the roof [Brannigan 1999; Dunn 1998].

• Immediately open ceilings and other concealed spaces whenever a fire is suspected in a truss system.

• Be aware that fires can be in the truss void or other concealed areas (see Figure 2). Once the fire enters a concealed space, it can travel to remote locations rapidly, since the wooden web members surrounded by open air space provide an excellent fuel source [Brannigan 1999].

• When a truss is suspected to be above a ceiling, use a pike pole or other tools to open up the ceiling and check for truss construction [Brannigan 1999]. If there is a fire barrier in the void, use the same procedure on the opposite side.

• Be aware of the possibility of flashover or back draft when opening concealed spaces and take the appropriate safety precautions.

• When opening ceilings or other concealed spaces, have charged hose line(s) ready.

• Be aware of the nearest exit and of other fire fighters in the area. The incident commander must consider and provide for alternative exit routes from all locations where fire fighters are operating [Klaene and Sanders 2000].

• Understand that fire ratings may not be truly representative of real-time fire conditions.

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The authors of this ALERT were Timothy R. Merinar, Richard W. Braddee, Frank Washenitz II, and Tom Mezzanotte, Division of Safety Research, NIOSH; Vincent Dunn, Deputy Chief (retired) New York City Fire Department; and Frank Brannigan, fire and building construction expert. The authors thank the following for their reviews of draft versions: Robert Solomon, PE, National Fire Protection Association; David Stroup, PE, National Institute of Standards and Technology; Rob Neal and William Troup, U.S. Fire Administration; Robert Bland, American Forest and Paper Association; Kirk Grundahl, Wood Truss Council of America; Chief Al Rosamond, Dallas Bay Volunteer Fire Department (representing the National Volunteer Fire Council); Chief Mark Young, Casper Fire Department (representing the International Association of Fire Chiefs); Rob Matuga, National Association of Home Builders; Pat Morrison and Elizabeth Harman, International Association of Fire Fighters.

Please direct any comments, questions, or requests for additional information to the following:

Dr. Nancy A. Stout, Director

Division of Safety Research

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

1095 Willowdale Road

Morgantown, WV 26505-2888

Telephone: 304-285-5894; or call 1-800-35-NIOSH (1-800-356-4674)

Firefighter Tattoo Showcase

FireLink — Wed, 17 Feb 2010 05:36:00 -0800

Firefighter tattoos have long been a tradition in the fire service. Whether it be the maltese cross, engine company or personal remembrance, these tattoos offer a tribute to the lifestyle of a first responder.

Browse our gallery of FireLink member tattoos and share the pride and honor of the fire service.

View Member Tattoos

Firefighter Resources:

Search Fire & Rescue Careers

Firefighter Salary Outlook

411 on Fire-Science Degrees

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FireLink Member dbertrand15

The tattoo to the left is located on my right arm. It is one of the twin towers that has broken apart.

The broken pieces are at the bottom. There is an angel coming out of the top of the tower and it says 343 down the piece.

343 is the number of firefighters that died in 9-11. That number has meaning not to just me but to every firefighter out there.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member dbertrand15

The tattoo above is the one on my back. It is a cross and it has two angels kneeling on each side of the cross.

it has a fire helmet on top of the cross and it has my grandpa's fire shield on it. He passed away in 1999 and I was very close with him, so this tattoo means a lot to me.

Tattoo Artist: Mark Isaacs of Marked for Life

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FireLink Member Schmelsi

I am a person of faith, so I knew that somehow I wanted to incorporate the fire department with that.
I came across a few tattoos and morphed them all together into what I have now.

I made it so that the cross is being protected by God (the blue) from the flames; which is what Isaiah 43:2 is all about. I also wanted it to have some feminine qualities to it as well, which ties in the pink and purple flames.

The tattoo is on my inner right forearm.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member BVFD320

This was my first firefighter tattoo and is visible on my left forearm.

I felt it would be saying I was ashamed of my fellow brothers and sisters to hide my pride. I chose Isaiah 43:2 because it seemed the perfect verse for a firefighter.

The writing inside the banner (Really Living is Optional) is something I borrowed from a firefighter shirt.

To me, firefighting is really living and you have a choice to do it or not.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member BVFD320

The IV bag was a cover up. I got it to celebrate becoming an emt.

I have plans to add 'Paramedic" to it after I finish school.

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FireLink Member BVFD320

The star of life is on my right calf.

I saw the design on a t-shirt and really liked the realistic snake and syringe.

I got this tattoo after I became an EMT.

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FireLink Member smk122

I moved to Arizona from Chicago to be a firefighter. The only bad thing about the job was that i had to leave my parents, my two sisters and three brothers behind.

We are a very tight knit Irish catholic family, so i got each family member tattooed on my rib cage with shamrocks and their names in banners wrapping around them.

This way, no matter where my career takes me in my life my family will always be with me.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member captaincvfd

The tattoo is from a 50's pinup by Gil Elvgren. The artist and I took the original artwork and photos of my wife and combined the 2. I also added my radio ID to my helmet that I had as a captain.

I got the Tattoo when I turned 40 when all of my friends and kids were getting art. I wanted something more light hearted and fun that also tied into the 20 years in the fire service. And what could be more light-hearted than a pin-up on a fire pole?

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FireLink Member FIRE5524

The praying hands are praying for me to keep me safe, while the skull is there in memory of my cousin who lost his life in a fire; he loved skulls.

The flames are just one of the many things I deal with every day. It isn't done yet. I'm going to add the Jaws of Life and the Star of Life for my rescue squad and first responder experience.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member ladyfirefighter

I got both of these tattoos at the same time. I collaborated with my artist and fell in love with my lower back tattoo he designed.

While doing the lower back tattoo he asked if he could do something pertaining to firefighting on my upper back and said I yes.

I wanted tattoos that represented who I am and what I stand for. Firefighter and EMT is my life, helping those in need.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member johnlvvfd

I had been wanting a tattoo for a long time but was never sure how I wanted to make it look.

I was at the State Firemans and Fire Marshals Association of Texas' annual conference in 2006 when I came across a t-shirt vendor that had the design on it that was the basis for my tattoo.

After a year of trying to have it done and not being able to afford it, I became friends with a firefighter named Neal Breault that also does tattoos. After a year of tweaking the design we finally sat down in his kitchen and got to work.

I love the way it turned out and I'm waiting for my chance to get another one.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member shutcherson01

The reason behind this tattoo is because I lost my son in August of 2008. He was a Lieutenant in the fire service, and this is in memory of him and what he stood for.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member shutcherson01

The reason behind this tattoo is because I lost my son in August of 2008. He was a Lieutenant in the fire service, and this is in memory of him and what he stood for.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member Firefighter362

I wanted a tattoo of something fire for my rookie year. I designed this one and had the artist draw a better one. Proud to be a fireman!

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FireLink Member JTShreve

As a little boy firefighting was always a goal of mine. When I became 16 and was able to be a junior firefighter I did everything possible to become one. This was one of my first tattoos & the first one I designed, I wanted to show the world I was a proud fire fighter!

I was always told a spiderweb on your elbow represents who you truly are. So being a volunteer fireman,
I designed this tattoo to show that I am not only proud of what the Maltese Cross means but also I honor and respect all past and present fellow fire fighters.

Next Tattoo

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FireLink Member Thebucketseat

This is my back tattoo I got done in 2005. I lost both my uncle and cousin in 9-11, and actually still have my cousins helmet. The shield has 343 in it, being that we are from the south and proud to be Americans I have both flags.

View Part 2 Of Our Fire & Rescue Tattoo Showcase

Vote for Your Favorite

Want Us To Add Your Tattoo? Email Us!

An Honest Discussion: Dangers of Being a Female First Responder

Thu, 11 Feb 2010 07:17:00 -0800

When I began writing these articles, I never expected the following or the feedback they would receive. However, ultimately that is the goal! To make you think and ponder.

To be fair, I thought I would write about something a little different. When I am asked if being a female has ever been a detriment to me or my coworkers, one instance pops into my mind.

I used to work in a large metropolitan city as a paramedic, in an area that was pretty gang ridden. As a general rule, two women were never placed on an ambulance together for safety reasons. We all understood and respected this. But one day, due to certain circumstances, two of us women were on the ambulance together.

We weren’t worried. We were both strong, loud, and we had a radio. Plus, the cops followed on all EMS calls. We would be fine.

Later in the day the tones dropped for an unconscious male in an alley. We drove to the location given by dispatch, and no one was found. The cops headed one direction, and we headed the other. 5 minutes later we found our patient face first on the ground, not moving.

We looked around and found no immediate life hazards. My partner got out to attend to the patient, and I radioed in our location. Unfortunately, as we would later find out, dispatch wasn’t listening.

I put the portable radio on my belt, grabbed the jump bag, and went to help my partner.

We were just finishing up the rapid trauma assessment when a noise caught my attention. I picked my head up and saw a number of men, wearing rival colors of the guy on the ground, advancing slowly toward us. I looked back at the patient and groaned. How did I miss the gang colors?

“Lori, Lori! Stand up slowly and back away,” I said. She glanced up at me. We stood up together with our gloved hands in the air and backed away from the patient. I reached around for my radio, watching the expressions on the gang members faces. None of them have yet to say a word.

Continue >>

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“509 to dispatch. We are still waiting for PD at our location. Please hurry, medics in danger.”

At this point the gang members began yelling at us, some in Spanish, some in English. Lori was doing a good job of trying not to back herself into a corner, but it was becoming increasingly difficult as more men appeared. I was trying to stay as close as possible to Lori, but they were doing a good job of dividing and conquering. Since they knew I had a radio, I wasn’t afraid to use it.

“509 to dispatch! PD needed! NOW NOW NOW!” I was yelling, our dispatch center was notorious for ignoring the fire frequency.

“Dispatch to 509. Where is your location?” Is this a joke? I pushed the panic button on the radio so I could have both hands free. I put the radio back on my belt so I could get ready to fend off my attackers. I wasn’t going down without a fight.

“Behind KFC in the alley! Please hurry! Medics in trouble, medics in trouble!” I kept repeating that line over and over again. I look over at Lori, and her back is against the wall, eyes wide with fear. I am sure her expression mirrored my own. I look back at the 4 guys surrounding me. One of them is yelling at me, saying I have to pay for helping the guy on the ground. PD was still nowhere to be found.

Suddenly I heard an air horn in the distance, and it got progressively louder. I whipped my head around toward the noise and saw the most beautiful sight ever…a fire engine. And out of that fire engine jumped out four firemen. Two carrying axes, one carrying a halligan bar, and one carrying a pike pole.

The gang members didn’t scatter, but they did back off. Lori and I were able to slip away and run over to our saviors. PD finally arrived, 4 cars pulling in. Half of the gang members ran, and half stayed. I felt comfortable enough to head back over to our patient. Since we had more then enough help, we were able to board him and get him into the relative safety of our ambulance fairly quickly.

I didn’t realize how much that experience affected me until we dropped the patient off at the ED. I sat in the medic room, and I started shaking. How close were we to becoming victims ourselves? How many of those guys were carrying guns? Why did it take PD so long to respond? Would it have been so different if I was partnered with a male?

Somehow, I didn’t think so, but the department argued it would have been. It became an official rule…no longer were two women allowed to work together.

Hazardous Materials: What You Need to Know

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) — Wed, 10 Feb 2010 08:58:00 -0800

Chemicals are found everywhere. They purify drinking water, increase crop production, and simplify household chores. But chemicals also can be hazardous to humans or the environment if used or released improperly.

Hazards can occur during production, storage, transportation, use, or disposal. You and your community are at risk if a chemical is used unsafely or released in harmful amounts into the environment where you live, work, or play.
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Hazardous materials in various forms can cause death, serious injury, long-lasting health effects, and damage to buildings, homes, and other property. Many products containing hazardous chemicals are used and stored in homes routinely. These products are also shipped daily on the nation's highways, railroads, waterways, and pipelines.

Chemical manufacturers are one source of hazardous materials, but there are many others, including service stations, hospitals, and hazardous materials waste sites.

Varying quantities of hazardous materials are manufactured, used, or stored at an estimated 4.5 million facilities in the United States--from major industrial plants to local dry cleaning establishments or gardening supply stores.

Hazardous materials come in the form of explosives, flammable and combustible substances, poisons, and radioactive materials. These substances are most often released as a result of transportation accidents or because of chemical accidents in plants.

How can I protect myself from a hazardous materials incident?

• What to do before a hazardous materials incident

• What to do during a hazardous materials incident

• What to do after a hazardous materials incident

Continue >>

Additional Reads:

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Five Step Guide to a Promotion

Save a Moment: Firefighter Inspired Art

[page]

What to do Before a Hazardous Materials Incident

Many communities have Local Emergency Planning Committees (LEPCs) whose responsibilities include collecting information about hazardous materials in the community and making this information available to the public upon request.

The LEPCs also are tasked with developing an emergency plan to prepare for and respond to chemical emergencies in the community. Ways the public will be notified and actions the public must take in the event of a release are part of the plan.

Contact the LEPCs to find out more about chemical hazards and what needs to be done to minimize the risk to individuals and the community from these materials.

Your local emergency management office can provide contact information on the LEPCs. Find your state office or agency of emergency management

You should add the following supplies to your disaster kit:

• Plastic sheeting

• Duct tape

• Scissors

Continue >>

[page]

What to do During a Hazardous Materials Incident

Listen to local radio or television stations for detailed information and instructions. Follow the instructions carefully. You should stay away from the area to minimize the risk of contamination. Remember that some toxic chemicals are odorless.

If You Are: Then:

Asked to Evacuate Do so immediately.

Stay tuned to a radio or television for information on evacuation routes, temporary shelters, and procedures.

Follow the routes recommended by the authorities--shortcuts may not be safe. Leave at once.

If you have time, minimize contamination in the house by closing all windows, shutting all vents, and turning off attic fans.

Take pre-assembled disaster supplies.

Remember to help your neighbors who may require special assistance--infants, elderly people and people with disabilities.

Caught Outside Stay upstream, uphill, and upwind! In general, try to go at least one-half mile (usually 8-10 city blocks) from the danger area. Move away from the accident scene and help keep others away.

Do not walk into or touch any spilled liquids, airborne mists, or condensed solid chemical deposits. Try not to inhale gases, fumes and smoke. If possible, cover mouth with a cloth while leaving the area.

Stay away from accident victims until the hazardous material has been identified.

In a motor vehicle Stop and seek shelter in a permanent building. If you must remain in your car, keep car windows and vents closed and shut off the air conditioner and heater.

Requested to stay indoors Bring pets inside.

Close and lock all exterior doors and windows. Close vents, fireplace dampers, and as many interior doors as possible.

Turn off air conditioners and ventilation systems. In large buildings, set ventilation systems to 100 percent recirculation so that no outside air is drawn into the building. If this is not possible, ventilation systems should be turned off.

Go into the pre-selected shelter room. This room should be above ground and have the fewest openings to the outside.

Seal gaps under doorways and windows with wet towels or plastic sheeting and duct tape.

Seal gaps around window and air conditioning units, bathroom and kitchen exhaust fans, and stove and dryer vents with duct tape and plastic sheeting, wax paper or aluminum wrap.

Use material to fill cracks and holes in the room, such as those around pipes.

If gas or vapors could have entered the building, take shallow breaths through a cloth or a towel. Avoid eating or drinking any food or water that may be contaminated.

Continue >>

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Shelter Safety for Sealed Rooms

Ten square feet of floor space per person will provide sufficient air to prevent carbon dioxide build-up for up to five hours, assuming a normal breathing rate while resting.

However, local officials are unlikely to recommend the public shelter in a sealed room for more than 2-3 hours because the effectiveness of such sheltering diminishes with time as the contaminated outside air gradually seeps into the shelter. At this point, evacuation from the area is the better protective action to take.

Also you should ventilate the shelter when the emergency has passed to avoid breathing contaminated air still inside the shelter.

Continue >>

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What to do After a Hazardous Materials Incident

The following are guidelines for the period following a hazardous materials incident:
• Return home only when authorities say it is safe. Open windows and vents and turn on fans to provide ventilation.

• Act quickly if you have come in to contact with or have been exposed to hazardous chemicals. Do the following:

- Follow decontamination instructions from local authorities. You may be advised to take a thorough shower, or you may be advised to stay away from water and follow another procedure.

- Seek medical treatment for unusual symptoms as soon as possible.

- Place exposed clothing and shoes in tightly sealed containers. Do not allow them to contact other materials. Call local authorities to find out about proper disposal.

- Advise everyone who comes in to contact with you that you may have been exposed to a toxic substance.

• Find out from local authorities how to clean up your land and property.

• Report any lingering vapors or other hazards to your local emergency services office.

• Additional steps you should take after a hazardous materials incident

If You Are:		Then:

Asked to Evacuate		Do so immediately. Stay tuned to a radio or television for information on evacuation routes, temporary shelters, and procedures. Follow the routes recommended by the authorities--shortcuts may not be safe. Leave at once. If you have time, minimize contamination in the house by closing all windows, shutting all vents, and turning off attic fans. Take pre-assembled disaster supplies. Remember to help your neighbors who may require special assistance--infants, elderly people and people with disabilities.

Caught Outside		Stay upstream, uphill, and upwind! In general, try to go at least one-half mile (usually 8-10 city blocks) from the danger area. Move away from the accident scene and help keep others away. Do not walk into or touch any spilled liquids, airborne mists, or condensed solid chemical deposits. Try not to inhale gases, fumes and smoke. If possible, cover mouth with a cloth while leaving the area. Stay away from accident victims until the hazardous material has been identified.

In a motor vehicle		Stop and seek shelter in a permanent building. If you must remain in your car, keep car windows and vents closed and shut off the air conditioner and heater.

Requested to stay indoors		Bring pets inside. Close and lock all exterior doors and windows. Close vents, fireplace dampers, and as many interior doors as possible. Turn off air conditioners and ventilation systems. In large buildings, set ventilation systems to 100 percent recirculation so that no outside air is drawn into the building. If this is not possible, ventilation systems should be turned off. Go into the pre-selected shelter room. This room should be above ground and have the fewest openings to the outside. Seal gaps under doorways and windows with wet towels or plastic sheeting and duct tape. Seal gaps around window and air conditioning units, bathroom and kitchen exhaust fans, and stove and dryer vents with duct tape and plastic sheeting, wax paper or aluminum wrap. Use material to fill cracks and holes in the room, such as those around pipes. If gas or vapors could have entered the building, take shallow breaths through a cloth or a towel. Avoid eating or drinking any food or water that may be contaminated.

FireLink

What's More Important: Credentials or Experience?

Highest Paying States for Firefighters (2011)

Firefighters don't get into public service and risk their lives for the money, but some firefighters do earn more in certain locations due to demand. FireLink did the research and found five states that pay top dollar for firefighters.

Next page: Highest Paying States for Firefighters

Highest Paying State #5

Nevada

Annual Mean Wage: $56,250

Next Page: #4 Highest Paying State for Firefighters

Highest Paying State #4

New York

Annual Mean Wage: $59,400

Next Page: #3 Highest Paying State for Firefighters

Highest Paying State #3

Washington

Annual Mean Wage: $62,950

Next Page: #2 Highest Paying State for Firefighters

Highest Paying State #2

California

Annual Mean Wage: $66,950

Next Page: #1 Highest Paying State for Firefighters

Highest Paying State #1

New Jersey

Annual Mean Wage: $71,810

Career Resources:

Highest Paying States and Metropolises for Firefighters

State

Hourly Mean Wage

1.

New Jersey

$34.53

2.

California

$32.19

3.

Washington

$30.27

4.

New York

$28.56

5.

Nevada

$27.04

State

Hourly Mean Wage

1.

Computer Systems Design and Related Services

$30.57

2.

Colleges, Universities, and Professional Schools

$28.18

3.

Petroleum and Coal Products Manufacturing

$26.59

4.

Aerospace Product and Parts Manufacturing

$25.19

5.

Facilities Support Services

$24.77

Metropolitan

Hourly Mean Wage

1.

Los Angeles-Long Beach-Glendale, CA Metropolitan Division

$44.18

2.

Vallejo-Fairfield, CA

$41.82

3.

Newark-Union, NJ-PA Metropolitan Division

$38.62

4.

Oakland-Fremont-Hayward, CA Metropolitan Division

$37.21

5.

San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara, CA

$35.11

State

Employment

1.